Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life, Travel & Exploration

Equipment to be purchased in England.

In dealing with this portion of our subject we can but generalise, as the destination of the traveller and the objects he has in view will materially modify the nature and extent of his equipment. The military officer who is bound on a long march, through a comparatively wild country, needs a very different outfit from that which a hunter or trader of experience would procure for himself before starting for the home of the elephant and the savage. The man who, with his wife and family, seeks a new home beyond the border line which divides the unreclaimed wilderness from civilised society, needs an infinitely more voluminous store of requisites-not to say comforts-than the small band of hardy explorers or hunter naturalists, who, with horse, mule, pack and rifle, wend their way over prairies and mountains without path, and thread the forests and thickets where no traveller has penetrated. There are other members of the human family who prefer prosecuting their wanderings alone, carry all their worldly possessions with them, and whose equipment is usually of a particularly simple and practical character. The sea, the inland lake, and the rivers flowing through little known regions, each have their explorers, for whose use a variety of contrivances are needed. Some of these are best made at home; others it will be found most convenient to prepare in the localities in which their aid are required; whilst at times adverse circumstances will render it necessary to improvise rough and ready appliances to save life and prolong its duration when saved. We shall therefore endeavour to give such hints and directions as will enable our readers who intend visiting far-off countries to select such matters as may be best purchased before quitting England, and to avoid encumbering themselves with useless impedimenta. As we have first made mention of the military officer about to depart on service, we will suppose that he is in London, or any other large town, gathering together his traps for a start. We will then accompany him on his shopping expeditions, and give him a few hints as to what will prove most useful. On matters of uniform we can have nothing to say further than to advise, as we do in every case of purchase, that it be obtained from some tradesman of well-established reputation. The raiment calculated to meet the requirements of refined society, when the uniform is for the time cast aside, must also be left to the dictates of the prevailing mode and the good taste of the wearer.

Shirt making and clothing.

Where fashion and the dress regulations of the army end there do we begin, and as flannel is, perhaps, the most important as an article of under clothing, we will first make a few remarks on shirts of that material, of which plenty should be taken. First, then, have them made to measure from flannel which has been previously well shrunk, of thoroughly good quality, of medium substance, and unobtrusive pattern or colour. It will be well to order them of extra length, both of sleeve and body, so as to allow for the shrinkage which is certain to take place after a few washings, in spite of all precautions. Two breast pockets should be made in each. These are very convenient for holding a variety of small matters when no waistcoat is worn. For outer clothing nothing can surpass good heather-coloured tweed, or Waterford frieze, for ordinary wear; jackets of shooting-coat pattern, made with plenty of pockets, formed from much stronger materials than are usually made use of by tailors for that purpose, will be found most useful for knocking about in. One or two pairs of trousers may be strapped up the inside and bottoms of the legs with leather, after the cavalry rough-rider pattern. A pair or two of Oxford cord hunting breeches will also be found useful to wear with long boots, with ankle jacks and gaiters. The waistcoats should be cut rather long, made with four pockets, two breast and two bottom. All these should have flaps or "salt-box" covers to them. Each half of the waistcoat, from about the level of the bottom button and button-hole to where the back is joined in, should be lined with a strip of leather. A long loose gaberdine of woollen stuff, made to button up the front, and secured round the waist by a long narrow scarf or "cummerbund," is an immense comfort in camp or quarters, let the climate be hot or cold. A good supply of reddish-brown woollen socks should be laid in; a moderate number of long stockings, of the same material, to wear with the breeches; and a few dozen pairs of the "heelless cotton" socks, for use on board ship, or when the weather is hot; nothing can be more agreeable to wear, except silk, and the cost is a mere trifle when compared to that of other hosiery. White cotton pocket handkerchiefs, as a rule, last their owners very much longer than silk, being less tempting to native servants or followers. Braces should be always ordered of the saddler, and made from the material used for the surcingles of racehorses. One pair of these lasts longer than half-a-dozen of the flimsy affairs usually sold ready made. There are those who dispense with braces, find great relief by the practice, and wear an ordinary waist-belt instead; but to some persons much discomfort is caused by so doing. A soft felt hat, with a moderately wide brim, is a convenient head dress in most temperate climates. With the head gear made use of in the tropics and the far north we shall have to speak hereafter. The best gloves for general and moderately rough usage are those sold under the name of driving gloves. They should be obtained of the regular glover, and have buckskin let in between the fingers. A pair of common hedging gloves well repays the trouble of taking, when the brush of the thicket has to be handled and firewood arranged.

Hats, ground sheets, and india-rubber garments.

Take a blue cloth pilot coat, cut long enough to reach just below the knees; have it lined throughout with woollen material; let the pockets be made extra strong, and order the buttons to be large, of black horn, and sewn on with double-waxed thread. The left hand breast pocket should be deep and lined with leather, as it not unfrequently becomes a resting-place for the revolver when you do not wish to make an ostentatious display of it. Get a couple of real Scotch caps, such as the Highland shepherds wear; nothing can equal them for sleeping in when camping out, and they form a most convenient head-covering for camp use, or when the sun is not too powerful. Get from some sailors' outfitter a regular seagoing sou'wester hat, with ear and neck flaps, and a pair of oiled canvas overalls to match. Procure also from some first-class maker a thoroughly good india-rubber coat; long enough to come well below the tops of the butcher boots. Buttons should be sewn in at the back and sides of the collar, in order to admit of a hood of the same material being put on when needed. An arrangement of this kind we have found most useful for boat work and in heavy tropical rains. Order also a piece of the best Russia duck, 9ft. by 8ft.; have this subjected to the waterproofing process; have the edges turned in to form a 2in. hem; and at every two feet, at both sides and ends, have good sized wide flanged brass eyelets punched in. Then in the centre of the piece have a longitudinal slit made 16in. in length, have the raw edge bound with a broad strong tape, and at every 3in. on each side have an eyelet of less size than those at the edges put in. This arrangement admits of the slit being laced close when it is not required. A waterproof square of this kind is useful for an almost endless number of purposes. In the first place it can be used as a ground sheet to sleep on; it can, by thrusting the head through the unlaced opening, be converted into an excellent cloak; it can by fastening strings and pegs to the sides, and cutting a ridge pole, be converted into a very fair substitute for a small tent; it forms an excellent carpet to lay by the side of the tent bed, when you are fortunate enough to be able to use one, keeping down insects, and protecting the feet from sharp grass, stumps, and twigs. If during rain the tent should admit water, as it sometimes will (especially if heedlessly touched when saturated with moisture), this universal square of duck can by the aid of some upright sticks or canes, one at the head and another at the foot of the bed, and a bit of rope stretched like a clothes line from one to the other, be at once made use of as a roof to the bed, the sides being made to slope and stand out by attaching pieces of twine to a few of the side poles. Clothes and other matters can be securely carried when rolled up in this, even in the heaviest rain. On a pinch, even a river might be crossed with its assistance, but the method adopted for constructing extempore rafts, boats, canoes, and floats, will be fully treated on when that subject comes under consideration.

Boots and shoes.

Boots and shoes for real work are in no part of the world equal to those made at home, and a thoroughly good stock should be laid in before quitting England; "butcher boots," so made as to fit the leg compactly just below the bend of the knee, with low heels, and broad heel seats; several pairs of shooting boots of the regular ankle-jack gamekeeper's pattern, tipped at toe and heel. A pair or two of high shoes made from soft undressed russet leather will be found very useful to wear instead of slippers, or for camp use when the ground is dry. A pair of Cording's wading boots will be found invaluable. They occupy little space, are comparatively light, and keep the legs and feet dry and warm when nothing else will. The late Mr. Wheelwright-better known in the sporting and scientific world as the "Old Bushman"-thus speaks of them in a communication to the Field: "I can add the testimony of five years' experience to all you can say in their favour. For wading, flight shooting, boat fishing or punting, and all winter water work, they are invaluable. They are a little too heavy for a hard day's walking, and soon cut through in the leg or foot among stakes or bushes; but use them carefully, and they will be found by far the best water boots ever made. They are very warm, stand a long while, are perfectly water-tight to the last, and they have this advantage over a leather boot-they want no dressing. Only never keep them near a fire. I lost three or four pairs in the bush by neglecting to draw them off before I lay down for the night before a camp fire. And what is worth all the rest, they never get hard, but are always as easy to draw off and on as a glove." It will be well also to provide two or three pairs of brown leather shooting boots without heels and with single soles, free from nails, and flexible enough to admit of the wearer walking softly and with perfect freedom.

Foot gear, adapted to the nature of most countries to which the traveller is likely to proceed, will be fully described when bush shoemaking is under consideration.

It will be well also to procure from a saddler a good supply of bootlaces. These should be cut straight and in the way of the grain of the hide. The white leather used by carters for mending their harness is by far the best for the purpose. Strips of this cut to about the eighth of an inch square, and well greased with mutton suet, are next to indestructible, and are available for all sorts of purposes apart from that of lacing boots or shoes. Slightly burning or roasting the ends in the candle or fire hardens them sufficiently to pass freely through the lace holes without a tag.

TWO BOXES ON ENDS OF POLE.

RESTING POLE FOR BURDENS ON TUE ZAMBESI.

Trunks and Boxes.

For ordinary travel the solid leather bullock trunks, of regulation size, will be found both convenient and durable. All strap guides, loops, and handles must be riveted as well as sewn to the body of the trunk. Spare keys should also be fitted to the locks. In countries where it is customary for baggage to be carried by porters through narrow bush paths, and where destructive insects are numerous, we recommend the use of sheet copper boxes, 16in. long, 12in. wide, and 12in. deep, made with copper wire strengthening rods, worked in the edges of the plates or sheets. Ring handles, also of copper, should be fitted to both sides and ends, as iron when wet would corrode the copper. These serve to pass straps, cords, or lashings through. In making these boxes great care should be taken to fit the joints and cover so as to render them rainproof. The insides should be tinned just as coppersmiths tin cooking pots. The above illustration will serve to show the manner in which one porter carries two of these cases, which, to be transported in this way, should not, with their contents, weigh over 20lb. each. If one box is carried, as shown in the annexed engraving, from 35lb. to 40lb. weight may be placed in it. Boxes for Cape waggon travelling should be about 3ft. long by 16in. wide and deep. They are best made of well-seasoned Memel deal, 1in. thick, dovetailed and angle plated. Such packing cases as are taken will require lining; thin sheet lead is convenient for this purpose, as it serves for bullet-making when the boxes are taken on shore.

Shooting Gear.

Bullets.

Rifles and guns.

To the traveller whose means of transport confine him to the possession of one gun, we say, without hesitation, purchase a plain, strong, muzzle-loading, double-barrelled smooth bore of 11 or 12 gauge. Length of barrel, 2ft. 6in., weight 8?lb. without the ramrod, a front action bar, side locks, and ramrod pipes large enough to carry a rod of extra large size and power. Two pairs of spare nipples, and one pair of fitted main springs, in addition to those in the locks. A bell-metal or iron spherical bullet mould must be selected with the greatest care, as it by no means follows that because the figure 12 or 11 is stamped on it, that, like a wadding punch, it is calculated for a gun of the same gauge. Our plan, when about to purchase a new mould, is to form, with beeswax, heated in warm water or before the fire, a ball, and to trim, mould, and finally to roll it on a polished table under the hand, until, when placed on a piece of thin, soft, greased kid, and gently pressed down, it fits the bore accurately; then, with this ball as a guide, we search the moulds until one is found just the size to contain it without undue pressure being used in entering the hardened wax ball. This mould we secure, caring nothing for the conventional numbers placed on it. The spherical leaden ball, when encased in kid, should fit the bore just tight enough to require one steady downward thrust of the rod to force it home. If it travels on without pressure, it is too loose; if, on the other hand, tapping with the rod is needed, it is too tight, and liable to welt or disfigure the barrel. We have seen many much injured, and rendered very unsafe, from this cause. If several guns can be taken, then it will be well to purchase one or more breech-loaders of No. 12 gauge. In the choice of rifles, our readers must be mainly guided by the character and size of the game they intend pursuing. A poly-groove muzzle-loader, No. 12 bore, 2ft. 4in. in the barrels, and of about 10lb. weight, will be found a generally useful and reliable gun. There are, without doubt, many advantages attendant on the use of breech-loading guns and rifles. There are also drawbacks, which, except under peculiar circumstances, more than outweigh them. That the breech-loading form of construction, varied as it is, is of less strength and durability than that of an equally well made muzzle-loader, few will be disposed to dispute. The hinge joints, levers, and slides, should they chance to become bent, loose, or, worse still, broken, would require repair by an experienced gunsmith; whilst, as will be seen as the work proceeds, nearly all the common accidents to which even the strongest and best made muzzle-loaders are liable in the bush, can, by the exercise of a little ingenuity, be readily made efficient weapons by their unskilled owners. Gunpowder, lead, and percussion caps, such as they are, can, when your own store is expended, destroyed, or lost, be readily procured even in very out of the way corners of the earth; whilst the cartridges calculated for breech-loaders could be only procured in towns or trading posts of importance, where the cost would, as a matter of necessity, be great, and their efficiency questionable. Strong flint muskets (old army regulation) will be found best calculated for the use of native servants. A bit of agate, common quartz, or iron pyrites, answers the purpose of a flint, should one be lost. Nevertheless, some breech-loaders so perfectly combine the qualities of simplicity of construction, excellence of shooting, and facility of re-loading, that we forbear to put too general a veto upon them, especially when, by inserting a metallic wad, they can be converted in case of need into muzzle-loaders. Terry and Calishers, Westley Richards, and others, are favourites in the Cape colony; and we carried for four years in tropical South Africa one by T. Wilson, of Birmingham: it was compact and simple in action, devoid of hinges and levers. We have loaded with facility while running from a wounded elephant, and turned to fire again within eighty yards. The cartridge was easily made with wads of the proper size and a bit of tissue paper saturated with common fat; each shot ejected the greased wad of the previous charge, cleaning the barrel as it went. It could, if necessary, have been used as a muzzle-loader, and is now, after 1600 rounds have been fired from it, in as good condition as could be desired. The long sword bayonet we never used, but, instead, cut down a smaller sword to the proportion of a bush knife, and, by a little smith's craft and patience, fitted it to be used as a bayonet if needed. A breech-loader has this advantage, that with a small bayonet a man, even in a sharp skirmish, is not defenceless while loading, for he has his point always before him ready for use should his enemy close. We have since had a spring locker let into the stock, to hold half a dozen cartridges and caps; so that, even when snatched up without the belt, the gun should not become useless after the first discharge.

Before quitting the subject, it may not be amiss to give a few hints on the purchase of second-hand guns; these are often to be obtained for considerably less than their original cost, and just as good as when perfectly new. There are many establishments in London, where second-hand fire-arms in considerable numbers are regularly kept to select from; amongst these may be mentioned Whistler in the Strand, Vaughan in the Strand, Hewett of Blackman-street, Borough, and Watson of 313, Holborn. After deciding on the description of gun you require, and ascertaining the cost, see that the maker's name is a good one, take the number of the gun, and either call, write, or telegraph as to identity and original price, which matters of information the manufacturer will immediately furnish. This is not an unnecessary caution, as, unless the would-be purchaser is experienced in style of finish, and quality of workmanship, he may possibly invest in an article sailing under false colours; and here let us most emphatically impress on the reader that at neither of the shops above referred to would he knowingly be allowed to be deceived. But that there are guns in the market with names on them which are forgeries few will deny, and it requires both the experience of the dealer, and the caution of the buyer, to guard against being taken in by them. Do not rashly reject a sound useful gun because it is made by a provincial Irish or Scotch maker, as there are many gunsmiths out of London who turn out guns equal in quality and shooting powers to any in the world. When examining a gun you are about to buy, try the locks by cocking and uncocking, see that the pitch suits your mode of shooting, draw the ramrod, lift the hammers to half-cock, drift out the bolt and reverse the barrels, when on looking underneath near the breech you will probably see the proof marks and the number of gauge at which the gun was proved; place the gun gauge in the muzzles and see that the two numbers correspond, as it occasionally happens that guns are proved at one number and bored out until they represent another-a most reprehensible practice, which militates greatly against the safety of the owner of the gun which has been thus tampered with. Do not, however, hastily cast aside a well-made Irish gun with a known maker's name engraved on it because there are no proof marks, as, for some strange reason or another, the law of proof does not appear to extend to Ireland; and we have seen many guns of surpassing excellence made in both Dublin and Cork unstamped. The reason for this anomalous state of affairs we never have succeeded in getting clearly explained; we therefore merely speak of matters as we have found them.

Testing firearms.

Before removing the locks, see that they are neatly and compactly fitted into the wood of the stock; see also that the timber of the stock in the bed of the barrels immediately in front of the false breech is sound; some makers lay in plates of metal at this joint, which is an excellent plan. On removing the bolt and taking off the locks, see that all the cavities into which the projections and springs fit have been cleanly and evenly cut out with the tool. See also that the triggers work freely and have back springs to them. See that the interiors of the locks are well fitted together, and if you can find the name of "Joseph Brazier, Ashes," engraved on the inside of the plate, you may discontinue your scrutiny so far as the lock department is concerned, as it is a guarantee for excellence of quality which we have always found beyond question. Have the breeches and nipples removed; see that both male and female screws are perfect; look carefully through the barrels, and see that the inner surfaces are clear, bright, and free from rust or honeycombing. Cast a general glance over the gun furniture to see that all is firm and sound. See that there are no shakes or cracks in the stock, and if there is no varnish on it so much the better. Whether the barrels are to be of Damascus or laminated steel, or twisted stubs, we must leave in great measure to the taste of the purchaser. Each kind has its advocates. We do not advise having guns without ramrods, as we have seen much inconvenience arise in wild countries from having the loading rod to carry and depend on. It is well to have one with a large powerful worm inside the driving top or end, but it should be regarded rather in the light of an auxiliary than an instrument to be depended on. It will also be advisable, before concluding your purchase, to test the shooting powers of the weapon selected. If a smooth bore, experiment on it first for accuracy of shooting with shot, in order to ascertain if the barrels are accurately fitted together. This is very easily done by trying a few shots from both barrels, at two or three different ranges, at a small object such as a visiting card. By fastening this to the centre of the target, and shooting steadily at it, you will at once ascertain if both the barrels perform their work satisfactorily, and do not shoot to the right or left. With such a gun as we have recommended, 3drs. of powder and 1?oz. of No. 5 or 6 shot will be found a fair average charge. Equal quantities by measure of powder and shot form a charge almost universal in its usefulness. The next test should be for pattern or regularity of distribution, at different distances, which may begin at twenty paces and extend to sixty, using the same charge. A large piece of sheet iron, painted over with a mixture of pipeclay or whitening and water, should, in the absence of one of Government pattern, be made use of. Form a round black space in the middle, and, as in the case of the former experiment, shoot steadily at it, at the different ranges indicated. It will then be seen whether the shot are equally and evenly distributed over a moderately large space of the metal. There are two modes of testing penetration usually had recourse to. The most common is to fire the gun, at different ranges, at a number of sheets of paper. Old books, with the covers removed, answer the purpose as well as anything. These, when firmly secured against the target, a door, or tree, are fired at with a fair average charge, in order to ascertain the number of leaves the shot has found its way through. To carry an experiment of this kind out satisfactorily, it will be well to test the intended purchase against some gun of known excellence, as no arbitrary rule can be laid down as to the number of sheets which should be penetrated, no two surfaces of paper being exactly alike in quality, substance, and mode of arrangement. Tin powder canisters are also used as a test of penetrating power. Some guns will riddle them from side to side, whilst others, with the same charge, and at the same distance, merely throw the shot through one thickness of the tin plate. Powder canisters are not always of the same substance; therefore, we recommend a competitive trial with them.

The accompanying table of results, which were some time since arrived at and communicated to the Field by an experienced correspondent, will serve to show what varied results follow the use of particular guns and canisters of more than ordinary strength.

"I was struck with the strength and sharpness of shooting of the 7?lb. 11-gauge gun at the trials, of which I sent you the report, and decided on trying the canisters again. The first was a very hard, strong canister of Curtis and Harvey's, nearly square, being 4?in. by 4?in. and 1?in. nearly through. I fired eight barrels, two or three pellets of each barrel going clean through both sides, and such as did not go through both sides deeply indenting the second side. I tried another of Curtis and Harvey's 6?in. by 3?in. by 1?in., with like results-No. 5 shot 40 yards (by tape), and the canisters standing loose on the top of a post. I then tried my heavy gun, 9lb. 11-gauge, barrels 5?lb., 31in. long. I have drawn out a table of charges and results. The patterns with No. 5 were very good-first-rate many of them-and the strongest; with the 3?drs. and 1?oz. very great, the other charge would not do. With No. 4 the strength is very great, but I cannot rely on the pattern. I then put up a Curtis and Harvey tin canister (apparently like the last in size and substance), 6?in. by 3?in. by 1?in., and let go my right barrel at 40 yards with No. 5; to my amazement, five pellets stuck in the first side, but none went through. I then examined it, and it was very clearly a tough and strong subject. My keeper tried the other barrel with the same results. He was, however, quite sure that my other gun would send No. 5 through both sides. I tried several shots the next day with the other gun at this same canister, but could not get through the first side; the shots stuck in, and so hard that a strong clasp knife would hardly extract them. I was astonished, I confess, for the shots which struck the stone gate-post were flattened as thin as the edge of a knife; and, standing about 5 yards wide of the mark, the strength seemed sufficient to go through anything. However, facts are facts; and the three canisters are now lying on the ground before me. I have since been experimenting with the light gun and No. 6; the day was not very favourable, being windy, but I did not like the patterns.

Dr. Oz. No. Yds. Right Barrel. Left Barrel. Light Gun 7?lb., barrels 4?lb. 30in.

3 1? No. 6 40 116 110 Very good. Very good.

110 107 Very good. Very good.

112 93 Good. Left went to the left.

60 46 41 Tolerable. Left low.

No. 5 ... 42 31 Good pattern, and very hard.

Targets 6ft. by 4?ft., with circle 30in. in diameter; shots on circle not counted.

"I do not like No. 6; it comes up hard, too-very hard. I stood behind the target while my keeper shot at it, both at 40 yards and 60 yards, so I could judge well; but the patterns had not the killing regularity of No. 5; a part was thick as dust shot, and another like No. 5, but without its broad splashes, though the pellets were all as flat as wafers at 60 yards. I would have backed the bird for ever. I cannot help thinking that, in windy weather, very little execution could be done at 40 yards with No. 6. I have since tried other charges-3drs. 1?oz., 3drs. 13?10oz., both Nos. 5 and 6; also 3?drs. 1?oz., but I do not find any charge beats 3drs. and 1?oz.

Dr. Oz. No. Yds. Right Barrel. Left Barrel. Heavy Gun.

3? 1? No. 5 40 65 66 Right good. Left excellent.

66 88 Right two holes or spaced. Left first rate.

50 46 39 Not good. Not good.

31 40 Moderate. Moderate. Want of strength, not the charge.

3? 1? No. 5 40 84 81 Right very good. Left first-rate.

80 81 Right good. Left excellent.

83 84 Right first-rate. Left first-rate.

50 42 50 Right excellent. Left excellent.

46 44 Right not regular. Left very good.

46 44 Right not regular. Left very good.

53 51 Right first-rate. Left first-rate. Very regular, very hard, very close.

3? 1? No. 4 40 47 52 Very good.

50 27 19 Not good at all.

Targets 2ft. square, iron, tape measurement; gun 9lb., without ramrod;barrels 5?lb. and 31in."

Rifle sights.

A rifle, before purchase, should also be carefully tested as to accuracy of shooting; this can be best done on some rifle range. For sporting purposes, accuracy of delivery and power of penetration at moderate distances are much more valuable qualities than length of range. Accuracy of shooting is best ascertained by firing steadily from increasing distances at an ordinary target centre, up to 200yds. A generally useful charge for spherical balls consists of the bullet-mouldful of the very best powder. Use a greased kid patch for the ball; see that it has no defects or faults in it; and never strike it with the driving end of the rod when it has once reached the surface of the powder in the barrel. Send the ball well home with a steady pressure from above, and then withdraw the rod. Should it be found that the balls are sent to the right of the object, in all probability it will be found on examination that either the hind sight is placed too far towards the right, or the fore sight too far in the opposite direction. So with rifles which shoot to the left. If the hind sight has been shifted in its slot, and driven too far to the left of the exact line, or the front sight in a direction towards the right, the balls will be found to assume an untrue flight; and the greater the distance they have to travel, the more marked will the error become. The handle of an old tooth brush, fashioned with a file into the form of an elongated wedge, will, with the aid of a mallet or hammer, serve to drift the slides into their proper position. This, when once found, should be noted by making a small but deep cut with the point of a penknife across both slide and barrel rib, so that if moved the two ends of the cut will not correspond. Gunmakers usually either cut a notch or punch in a piece of platinum, with the same view. Rifles will not unfrequently need re-sighting from accidents in wild countries, but this subject will be treated of at length hereafter. The penetration of rifle balls is best ascertained by firing them at a number of thin elm boards, placed one on the other like a pack of cards. The number of layers or boards penetrated is at once ascertained by taking off the planks one by one until the ball is reached.

Ammunition.

We are not unfrequently asked to advise as to the quantity of ammunition a single sportsman should take abroad in order to enjoy a fair amount of shooting. The duration of the proposed excursion, nature of game about to be followed, and the proclivities of the intending traveller, will all influence the bulk of the store he should provide himself with. Still, a hint or two may at any rate serve for a basis for him to regulate his purchases by. Supposing, then, that a No. 12 or 11 muzzle-loader, an 11 or 12 bore muzzle-loading rifle, and either a brace of double pistols or a revolver, are taken; 4lb. of best sporting powder, 2lb. of rifle ditto, 2000 best caps for guns, which should have nipples alike, and 250 pistol caps; two 28lb. bags of No. 6 shot, one bag No. 4, and one bag BB. Have sail-canvas bags made to go outside the ordinary shot bags, as these are sure to burst with rough travelling. Take six bags of ordinary mercurial gun wads, and six of extra thick felt ditto as powder wads. These can be split in two if you run short. Wads of this kind are invaluable, as they keep the gun clean, improve its power of shooting considerably, and are less liable to rise in the barrel than those of thin material. Get a stout elm box made; have it lined with sheet lead; have a division of stout plank made in the middle, so that the shot may rest at one end and the powder, wads, and caps at the other. Pack in every crevice with tow, as that will come handy for cleaning purposes, solder down your lead cover, and then screw on your elm box-lid. A stout pair of elm cleets or bars should be secured to both bottom and top of the box. They not only strengthen it, but prevent the planking from coming in contact with the earth or wet decks. They also serve to prevent ropes used in slinging or fastening the case in its various haulings up and lowerings down from slipping. Cleets of this kind are useful appendages to all wooden boxes used by travellers.

Pistols.

The most efficient and powerful pistol we have used is the holster revolver of Colonel Colt, but its weight (4lb. 2oz.) is far too great to admit of its being generally carried except on horseback. There are not so many objections to the use of breech-loading revolvers and pistols as there are to guns and rifles made on that plan. In the first place, they are less liable to breakage or derangement; and in the next, from the very limited number of cartridges which would be actually fired, a sufficient number may be very easily taken to last through a long campaign or expedition. It is an immense advantage being able to instantly load or unload the chamber without discharging it. It is customary with many travellers, ourselves amongst the number, to fire the revolver off every Saturday to clean, re-load, and re-cap them, thereby sacrificing six charges, six caps, and some little labour. Notwithstanding all the ingenuity which has of late been devoted to the production of breech-loading revolvers, we have not seen one which we can recommend without reservation-the great fault in every case being smallness of bore. Long range is, as a rule, not required in a pistol, but that which is required is the power of inflicting a severe shock to the system at comparatively close quarters. Numerous cases might be cited when, after lodging two or even three of the tiny pellets fired from small revolvers in the body of an enemy, the enemy has had decidedly the best of it, and coolly finished off the owner of the mechanical popgun with some old-world weapon of greater power. Until a large-bored and handy breech-loading revolver is produced, we recommend for use on horseback, either double-barelled smooth-bore Lefaucheux-pattern pistols with 7?in. barrels and 14 bore, or muzzle-loaders of the same size and gauge, with bar side locks and swivel ramrods. The over and under double pistol is an excellent weapon, and is carried by many soldiers and travellers of great experience; but for our part, we prefer the barrels mounted side by side, precisely as they are in a double gun. To carry in the belt for use on foot, the Tranter breech-loader is perhaps as good as any, although as a rule the trigger pull is too heavy; but this is an evil which admits of correction.

Powder flasks, barrel rods, &c.

Take three Sykes powder-flasks, one to hold a pound and the others of medium size; have them of tinned copper stitched over with saddle pig-skin. We prefer for carrying shot a double shot-belt with patent side springs to any of the lever cut-off contrivances; it is a very old-fashioned plan we know, but a very effective and useful one for all that. Two sizes of shot can be carried in it; it can be worn much more comfortably than a pouch, which is always getting in the way, and there is no loss of shot from chance blows on the lever: a still greater advantage lays in your being able to see that which goes into your gun. If only one size shot can be taken, select No. 6 for general use; but No. 8, No. 4, and Bristol B. should be added if practicable. Gunpowder of excellent quality is now to be obtained of all the first-class makers. For percussion caps, thick felt gun-wads, and ordinary mercurial ditto, go to either Joyce or Ely. The wire cartridges of the latter maker are invaluable if they can be carried: we have done wonders with them. When having your shooting gear put in order, have two well-seasoned deal rods made, so that they may fit tightly into the barrels of the gun when covered with two layers of flannel, which must be firmly stitched on; the sticks are cut exactly the length of the barrels, and connected at the muzzle ends by a short piece of strong tape; this serves to draw them out by. Before placing the sticks in the barrels for final packing up, rub them over with mercurial ointment, as should be done to both the outsides of the barrels and the gun furniture; there is little fear of rust attacking your firearms when treated in this way.

A brass mould for casting buck shot will be found very useful. One we have found of infinite service is thus made: Two long narrow cheeks of brass are fitted at one end with a hinge, each cheek has the halves of fifteen shot sockets at each edge, making, when the two halves are closed, thirty perfect spherical moulds for shot. A groove and row of inlets run along each edge, and two movable steel plates cut off the necks of the shot when cool. There are two handles, and the whole affair is not unlike a long narrow pair of nutcrackers. The shot thus cast are about the size of garden peas, and an ounce of them, with 3?drs. of powder behind it from a No. 11 gun, forms a charge which will be found most formidable if used at moderately close quarters. When defending a camp or waggon fort against the attacks of savages nothing is equal to it.

Stationery and Artist's Materials.

It is to be supposed that most persons visiting little-known regions will at least keep a diary for private gratification, if not for public use; and now that drawing from nature is so essential a branch of education, they will most likely also wish to sketch such objects or scenes as may be most interesting. Some who aspire to more exactitude of detail than an artist can hope for in a hasty sketch may wish to practise photography; and in this beautiful art the greatest possible facilities are offered to those who practise it. We have lately seen in London many most beautiful pictures taken by Dr. Kirk on the Zambesi with a small and inexpensive camera, carried as a mere supplement to his private equipment; but unless the traveller possesses, as Kirk did, chemical knowledge enough to enable him to contend successfully against the various contingencies of changing climate, impurity or scarcity of water, and innumerable other new and unexpected difficulties, we are inclined to think that the pencil, guided with what artistic skill the individual may be able to command, will afford, if not the best, at least the most certainly available results; and, without undervaluing photography, we may in this preliminary chapter notice principally the appliances which will enable a man to keep his journal and illustrate it with sketches of interesting scenes or objects.

The journal.

First, then, as to the journal. Of course, for purposes of correspondence, a traveller will take care to supply himself with some one of the substantial and economical portable desks in which pens, ink, note-paper, and envelopes are always at hand to enable him to write a creditable letter from almost any part of the world. But the journal or diary is another matter; its value consists chiefly in its being what its name indicates-a diary or diurnal record. It must be written while the events described are fresh on the memory, or there is neither life nor spirit in it. If the journal of to-day is put off, the events of to-morrow will confuse and dim the impressions that ought in all their pristine vigour to have been committed to paper; procrastination is the thief of time, and we may well say that it will rob the journal of the traveller of all that freshness and vivacity which alone can make it interesting.

The question, then, is, how shall he carry with him material so that each night, by the blazing camp-fire, the scantily-fed oil lamp, or the last half hour of the quickly waning twilight, he may record his impressions of the events of the day? We will suppose that the chase has occupied him; or he has been engaged, as we have, in desultory warfare in Kaffirland or India; or even, it may be, passing through a peaceful country, with no other than the common difficulties of exploration and objects of interest in botany, zoology, or any of the innumerable departments of science crowding on him at every hour. He will, perhaps, wish to send home one or more copies of his diary as correspondence, and it is absolutely necessary that he himself should retain a perfect copy. Ink he cannot at all times carry, nor could he use it, for the drying up of the fluid, the clogging and corroding of his pens, would be insuperable difficulties; and, beside this, as his time is not sufficient for him to write in detail, even for the first time, all that he wishes, how shall he obtain a copy? In answer we will simply state the plan we have successfully adopted. Pen and ink we discarded altogether, and trusted simply to the powers of a good HH. pencil and a supply of thin white foolscap interleaved with semi-carbonic paper, as shown in the illustration here given. By this arrangement we were able at any time to record all needful remarks or observations in duplicate, and could have extended this if necessary to five copies, while all the labour of re-writing was saved and all chance of error obviated by this simple process.

Artist's materials.

With regard to artist's materials, until we have an opportunity of going farther into detail, perhaps all that need be said is that the traveller, knowing his own capabilities and requirements, should supply himself with material from some respectable colourman-Reeves, Winsor and Newton, or others-with such materials as he requires. To one who has real facility in sketching, the black-lead pencil and a few quires of sketching cartridge paper will be the means of affording illustrations which, compared with the simple means employed, may be accounted marvellous; but if he has skill in colouring and will add to this a water-colour box, with tubes, or moist colours in porcelain pans, in assortments (always kept by the best colourmen), with a few sable or other pencils, and brushes of the best quality (for there is really no saving in buying cheap goods), he may obtain results that will in after years more than repay the cost and labour he has expended upon them.

Details of our own outfit and expenditure will hereafter be given; and we may now briefly mention that, for pure and careful painting, white paper-say Whatman's-is indispensable; but where strict accuracy of tint is not essential, it is very soothing to the eye, especially under the fervid rays of an almost vertical sun, to have the paper slightly tinted with pearl, warm grey, light drab, or neutral colours, which, if well chosen, will enable the artist to make very effective drawings in sepia, or colours heightened with Chinese white.

For persons wishing to employ their leisure in pleasing mementoes of the scenes they visit, perhaps the following brief list-amplified, should they desire it-will afford sufficient guidance; and they will also do well to choose one or more of the shilling handbooks published by Rowney and Co., or Winsor and Newton.

A sketching portfolio, with folding tin frame to confine the paper while in use, and pocket for spare paper-quarto size. Do not take sketching blocks where they have to stand rough usage.

One of folio size, if desired.

A good strong havresac of canvas, with leather slings for each folio. Stout canvas is almost waterproof. This should have pockets for colour box, water bottle, pencils, and penknife.

Half quire Whatman's drawing paper (white). Some of it should be cut to the size of the folio.

Half quire sketching cartridge for less finished work.

Half quire tinted drawing paper (pearl, light drab, cool and warm greys).

A proportion of all these papers should be cut to the size of the sketch book when purchased; but a few sheets should be kept whole, as a larger drawing may be required.

Two dozen drawing pencils-8 HH., 12 H., and 4 HB. In practice, it will be found HB. is black enough, and it should be used sparingly, as, unless a drawing is fixed immediately, the deep shades are very apt to smear when the backs of other sketches are packed against them.

Two single bladed penknives.

Very compact sketching boxes with assorted colours in cakes, in porcelain pans, or in collapsible tubes, are provided; and the amateur can hardly do better than select one of these with any number of colours from two to twenty-four.

We prefer to use the collapsible tubes, as from them any amount of colour may be placed upon the palette ready for use, without the trouble of grinding from the cake or washing up from the moist pan. Another advantage is that the colour remaining in the tube cannot be spoiled by the admixture of any other-the tubes might be carried loose in the pocket of a white waistcoat without fear of spoiling it. There are, however, a few which do not keep well, as, from their weight, they separate from the medium they are mixed with and become hard. Some of these are seldom used; but, where they are necessary, we should advise that they be taken in cakes.

On tinted paper very nice effective sketches may be made with one tube of sepia and a cake of Chinese white. With these we should advise three brown sable pencils in flat German silver ferrules-Nos. 1, 3, and 6. With the addition to these of the three primitive colours-red, blue, and yellow-a considerable range of subjects may be painted; indeed could we obtain these in perfect purity, we should require no other. But, as this is impossible, we subjoin a list of colours, placing first in order those that we have found most useful (Chinese white and sepia have been already mentioned):-

Indian yellow,

Carmine,

French blue,

Yellow ochre,

Light red,

Prussian blue,

Gamboge,

Rose madder (perhaps in cake),

Cobalt,

Raw sienna (cake),

urnt sienna,

Indigo,

Yellow lake,

Mars orange,

Payne's grey,

Vermilion (cake),

Vandyke brown,

Emerald green,

Scarlet lake (cake),

Crimson lake,

Purple lake,

Cadmium yellow (cake),

Brown madder (cake),

Purple madder (cake).

With these, the whole set from 1 to 6 of the sables in flat albata will be needed, and we advise two each of 1, 2, and 3, as well as one or two large swans' quills for washing in the sky or flat tints. A tripod sketching stool folding to the size of a special's staff would be useful, but the rivet should be strong and well clinched. Let the watercolour box have divisions on the edge of the palette for every colour it contains. If you take an easel, do not trust an india-rubber collar joint; it will not stand tropical heat; let the joint be brass. The tripod easel, folding up like a single rod, is most portable. We have in this said nothing of oil colours; amateurs will hardly need them in a wild country; but when we treat more at length on this subject our own equipment will be given.

Scientific Instruments.

Instruments for mapping the route.

If the traveller aims at exploring and approximately mapping the country he passes through, astronomical instruments are indispensable, and of these none are more useful than the compass; the sextant, with artificial horizon; the note book, conveniently ruled, for recording observations; and the protractor, the scale, and the dividers, for laying them down upon the map. If merely a pleasure excursion in a sufficiently known country is contemplated, a pocket compass will be all that is needed; and even that is dispensed with by hunters and traders, who push farther every year into the wilderness without fear of either mistaking their way or being unable to return upon their own tracks.

A great amount of detail may be filled in with the following simple outfit:-A pocket compass, not only showing the points as in common use, but graduated on the outer circle with degrees, reading uninterruptedly from zero all round to 360: this will give the direction of the road, the bearings of any two objects, and the angle between them. A waistcoat-pocket ivory 6in. folding rule: this will serve the purpose both of scale and protractor; the eighths of an inch may be conveniently taken to represent miles, and by laying the rule upon the compass, so that its joint coincides with the centre on which the needle turns, and opening the legs to the degrees marked upon the circumference, the required angle may be approximately transferred to the note book. For observing latitudes a sextant is indispensable. If great accuracy is not required, a pocket or box sextant of from three to four inches diameter, and reading to half miles, will answer; but for more precision one of at least 8in. radius should be taken, framed entirely of metal, as wood will shrink and warp; it should read to 15 or even to 10 seconds, or sixtieths of a mile. There are many forms of artificial horizon, but of these the mercurial is the best, and, in fact, the only one we can confidently recommend. The trough should not be less than five inches long by three broad, and we prefer an oval form, with a convenient spout for pouring off the quicksilver when done with. A glass roof is used to protect the surface of the mercury, should there be any wind, and this may be made to fold into a very small compass, if desired. Six, or at least four, pounds of mercury should be provided; and this should be kept in an iron bottle, with screwed stopper and cover, serving as a funnel, which should be further protected by a piece of washleather tied over it. We have used as a substitute a common stoneware ink bottle, with leather securely tied over the cork, but wooden bottles are sure to split and leak when taken to hot countries.

With this equipment, a superior compass, for the more accurate determination of bearings, will be required. A prismatic compass is very useful, but we have used, with great convenience and accuracy, a flat one with a card of three inches diameter, divested of everything but the slit and hair line sights, which are used just as those of a rifle are, and protected only by a stout glass, which saved the trouble of removing and replacing the cover. A small pouch on the waist belt was appropriated exclusively to this. The note book may be of good non-metallic writing-paper, such as is in common use. This may be written on very conveniently with a H. or HH. drawing pencil, which is practically indelible. It would be convenient to have lines ruled along the side of the page for the courses and time or estimated distance; ￡. s. d. columns will do very well for this. For mapping, paper may be purchased ruled with squares of almost any desired size; the inches are marked with strong lines, and the subdivisions, eights or tenths, with fainter. This should be cut to fit one of the quarto sketching folios, with folding frame to confine the sheet in use, and pocket for spare paper as commonly used by artists. The instruments absolutely necessary for plotting the result are a semicircular, or, still better, a circular protractor, marked like the compass with degrees from 0 to 360, and made of brass, or preferably of some transparent material. A 6in. scale, with the usual divisions, and a good pair of compasses or dividers, with points as fine as possible, but somewhat obtuse, to prevent the possibility of their piercing the paper and breaking off in it. For heights of mountains, the simplest and most reliable instrument is the hypsometrical or boiling-point apparatus, which, though not so accurate as the mountain barometer, is sufficiently so for ordinary purposes, and has this great merit-it cannot easily be put out of order. The rainfall, should the country be blessed with any, may be measured by a Casella rain gauge, which we have also used very successfully on a pinch as a funnel for drawing off rum from a barrel. Thermometers reading up to boiling point ought to be carried, and in addition to these the traveller may provide himself with a self-registering maximum and minimum, and a wet and dry bulb thermometer.

One of the greatest difficulties that an observer working on shore with the artificial horizon can meet with is-that the actual angle to be observed is doubled by reflection in the quicksilver. Few sextants read higher than 120° or 130°, consequently, when the sun is 70° high, it is beyond the reach of ordinary instruments. To meet this, Captain C. George, R.N., of the Royal Geographical Society, has invented a very beautiful little instrument, in the form of a double box sextant, and the object of which is either to take two angles at one observation, by referring two distant objects to a common centre, and completing at once a perfect triangle, or, by the increased power of the instrument, to take any required angle that may be too great for those in ordinary use. The instrument is best described as being a special arrangement of two sextants placed one over the other. Each sextant is complete in all its essential details, and, if so required, can be detached and separately used.

The "Improved Double Sextant" is capable of being applied to the following uses:-

(1.) To the measurement of angles of nearly double the arc which can be measured by the ordinary sextant.

(2.) To the simultaneous measurement of two angles.

(3.) To laying out a direct line between any two objects, thus acting as a substitute for a Raper's instrument.

(4.) To laying out curves for railways, harbour works, &c., &c.

(5.) It can be used as an optical square.

(6.) It can be used as a dip-sector.

(7.) It can be used on shipboard to measure the supplement of the meridian altitude, in cases where the land intervenes between the observer and the direct meridional horizon.

(8.) It can be used on shore with the artificial horizon in obtaining altitudes of objects near the zenith.

(9.) It is also available as two distinct sextants, one of which can be used in case of the other being damaged, or one can be used by an assistant, and the other retained by the observer.

A pocket compass is now made in which the northern half is black with white points, and the southern white with black points; the advantage of which by night or twilight is obvious. We prefer that the card should travel with the magnet, as all the points then come naturally into position, and the excessive liveliness of the needle which renders a rapid observation so difficult is obviated. We have carried a pocket compass with a swivel ring, so that it could be worn on the left thumb, while we held the note book and kept the right hand free for writing or guiding the horse. It is easier to make pencil notes on horseback than in a waggon. For the proper registration of the time and distance travelled, a good well-going hunting watch is necessary; and if it has a black dial and white figures so much the better. This will serve sufficiently well for taking time in the observation of lunar distances. Unless under very exceptional circumstances it would be useless for an explorer to trouble himself with a chronometer. A good binocular field glass for day and night will be found useful.

PORTABLE OBSERVATORY.

TRIANGULAR COMPASSES.

SLIDING BEAM COMPASSES.

Portable observatory.

Measurement of distances.

We give a sketch of a very convenient arrangement made for us by Mr. Casella, in which the roof of the artificial horizon, slung with its point downward in a leather case, with pieces of tin let in to protect the glass from injury, was filled up with a block of light cedar, with hollows cut in it for the reception of the pocket sextant, iron-stoppered bottle of mercury and funnel cap, prismatic compass, note book with tables of declination cut from Hannay and Dietrichsen's Almanac pasted in it, pencil, skin of chamois leather, and over all the horizon trough. Lieutenant Skead, R.N., who accompanied the expedition to the Zambesi, frequently used it, and called it "a portable observatory." If the traveller intends to be long absent, he should supply himself with the Nautical Almanac for three years in advance, as well as with Norie's or Raper's Epitome, or Kerigan's Navigation. In addition to the instruments we have described, triangular compasses are very useful for taking the exact relative position of three points, and sliding beam compasses for long distances. Proportional compasses are also very useful in plotting the result of observations; we were accustomed to pin down half a dozen sheets over each other on the drawing board, and with a fine needle point prick the course through the whole of them; then by underlaying them with semi-carbonic paper, and writing the names on the upper sheet with a HHH. pencil, three or even more copies at a time might be obtained, the number, of course, depending much on the thinness of the paper we worked on. (See accompanying illustration.) Bear in mind that what an explorer wants is the means of approximately laying down his course and distance travelled, and his latitude precisely; the sextant and artificial horizon will do the last within a mile. The compass will give the course very nearly if he walks or rides; no instrument can be perfectly depended on. A pedometer will do for short distances, but when he becomes weary it counts his feeble steps just as it did his vigorous strides at the beginning, and thus shows more than the truth. If wheel carriages can be used, take a trochiameter, and contrive if possible to have the wheel on which it is fixed exactly five yards in circumference; it saves no end of trouble if there are no odd half inches to calculate. For mapping, do not take a case of instruments unless they are really good; have rather a few good ones wrapped in a chamois skin, a small ivory rule on which the eighths of an inch serve for miles, a pair of good dividing compasses, a good circular protractor transparent marked, from 0 to 360, a small parallel rule, HHH. pencils, a cake of blue for rivers, and carmine for roads, with a couple of sable pencils and a fine incorrodible metallic pen, will enable you to make a very complete and reliable map.

In the map room of the Royal Geographical Society a small selection of practical works is kept, a list of which, by the courtesy of Captain C. George, we are enabled to insert here. It is as follows:-

The Traveller's Library.

Astronomy.

Outlines of Astronomy. Sir J. Herschel, Bart. (Longman and Co. 1858.) 11s.

Astronomy and General Physics. W. Whewell. (W. Pickering. 1857.) 4s.

Illustrated London Astronomy. J. R. Hind. (Ingram and Co. 1853.) 1s. 6d.

Handbook-Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. G. F. Chambers. (J. Murray. 1861.) 10s.

Elements of Plane Astronomy. J. Brinkley, D.D. (Hodges and Smith. 1845.) 6s.

Orbs of Heaven; Planetary and Stellar Worlds. O. M. Mitchell. (N. Cooke. 1856.) 2s. 3d.

Navigation.

Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Rev. J. Inman. (Rivingtons. 1862.) 6s. 3d.

Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation. (J. W. Norie. 1864.) 14s. [N.B. The latest edition should be asked for.]

Lunar Time Tables. J. Gordon. (Imray. 1853.) 7s.

Handbook for the Stars. H. W. Jeans. (Levey, Robson, and Co. 1848.) 3s. 6d.

Mathematics, Trigonometry, and Spherics.

Manual of Mathematical Tables. Galbraith and Houghton. (Longman and Co. 1860.) 2s.

Mathematical Tracts. G. B. Airy. (J. W. Parker. 1842.) 9s. 6d.

Treatise on Practical Mensuration. A. Nesbit. (Longman and Co. 1864.) 5s. 4d.

Practical Introduction to Spherics and Nautical Astronomy. P. Kelly, LL.D. (Baldwin and Co. 1822.) 7s.

Treatise on Trigonometry. G. B. Airy. (Griffin and Co. 1855.) 2s. 3d.

For Travellers.

What to Observe; or, Travelling Remembrancer. Col. Jackson. Revised by Dr. Norton Shaw. (Houlston and Wright. 1861.) 9s. 6d.

Geodesy and Surveying, Military, Nautical, and Land Surveying.

Treatise on Military Surveying. Lieut. Col. Jackson. (Allen and Co. 1860.) 12s.

Outline of Method of conducting a Trigonometrical Survey. Col. Frome. (Weale. 1862.) 10s. 6d.

Practical Geodesy. J. W. Williams. (Parker and Son. 1835.) 7s. 6d.

Trigonometrical Surveying, Levelling, and Engineering. W. Galbraith. (Blackwood and Son. 1842.) 6s. 9d.

Engineering Field Notes on Parish and Railway Surveying and Levelling. H. J. Castle. (Simpkin and Co. 1847.) 8s.

Practice of Engineering Field Work. W. D. Haskoll. (Atchley and Co. 1858.) 17s. 6d.

Treatise on Nautical Surveyings. Com. Belcher. (Richardson. 1835.) 12s.

Weights and Measures.

Weights and Measures of All Nations. W. Woolhouse. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) 1s. 6d.

Foreign Measures and their English Values. R. C. Carrington. (Potter. 1864.)

Construction of Maps.

Manual of Map-making. A. Jamieson. (Fullarton. 1846.) 2s.

Manual of Topographical Drawing. Lieut. R. Smith. (J. Wiley. 1854.) 5s.

Projection of the Sphere.

Projection and Calculation of the Sphere. S. M. Saxby. (Longman and Co. 1861.) 4s. 3d.

Use of Instruments.

Treatise on Principal Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. F. Williams. (Weale. 1857.) 3s. 2d.

The Sextant and its Applications. Simms. (Troughton and Simms. 1858.) 4s. 6d.

Treatise on Mathematical Instruments. J. Heather. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) 1s.

Geography.

Geography Generalised. R. Sullivan. (Longman and Co. 1863.) 2s.

In addition to these, every one ought to possess the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry, which is a series of papers written for the direction of explorers by men of the highest standing in various sciences; and no better general work can be recommended.

Horse Equipment.

Saddles.

Bridle.

NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION SADDLE EQUIPMENT.

NAMAQUA GUN BUCKET.

A good roomy hunting saddle, turned out as only an experienced English maker can, or, at any rate, so far as our experience has gone, ever does, we look on as the very perfection of that on which a horseman should sit; and we strongly advise every one leaving England for any country in which he has to ride, to provide himself with at least one. The various saddles used abroad will be described farther on. It will be requisite to have a number of "Ds" fastened on in the most convenient situations for attaching by straps the various matters which it is at times requisite to carry. Two soft leather holsters should be fitted to the front, and a wallet (see engraving), made to rest behind the off saddle flap and thigh of the rider, suspended by straps from Ds sewn firmly on for that purpose. At the rear of the saddle should also be attached a double row of Ds for the purpose of securing a sort of leather cover or envelope (see engraving), within which, when on the march, the head and heel ropes, with their pins, are secured. The mode of using these, as well as "knee halters," &c., will be described when treating on that subject. Two "numdahs," or saddle cloths, should accompany the saddle. The best we have seen of late are composed of a thick species of felt; but, during the most rapid and fatiguing forced marches through Central India, at the time of the mutiny, we used two of quilted cotton of native manufacture, which were put on alternately, one getting dry whilst the other was becoming saturated with perspiration from the horse, and so, by a constant change of these, avoiding one of the worst misfortunes that can befall the horse of the traveller through a wild country, viz., "a sore back." The skin of the klip springer, prepared with the hair on, forms an admirable numdah. Saddles are greatly protected during rough travel, and their durability much increased, by having cases made for them of soft "russet" leather, or that which is infinitely better, when it can be obtained, "saumber skin." We have had covers for all our saddles made of it, to protect the pig skin from the tremendous thorns of tropical forests, as well as the numerous other sources of injury to which saddles are liable. The stirrup-iron should be of large size, so as to admit of the free passage in and out of a thick boot with some mud or clay about it. Two or three pairs of substantial hunting spurs, with wide straps, will be found the most reliable kind of "persuader." The most useful bridle we ever had was of the "shifting bead collar pattern," so constructed that, by unbuckling a pair of side straps, both bits, with the reins attached, came off, leaving a strong head collar, with a chin strap, on which was an iron ring for a coil of rope to be suspended from, as shown in the illustration on page 37. Numerous opinions exist touching "bits," and much diversity of opinion must remain after all the arguments which have from time to time been expended on the subject; as the temperaments of horses and men vary, and as the peculiar purposes to which the horse, in the number of phases or conditions in which he is called on to minister to the wants and pleasures of his master, are changed, so will some modification of the means used for his control and direction be required. Pall-mall is one place and the forest another; and it by no means follows, because the equipment one has used with English hunters in an English hunting-field has been found all that could be desired, that native bred or colonial horses, ridden in pursuit of game, require no other. We do not think it would be profitable to the reader to enter here on a description of the bits used by various nations and tribes. We advise as nearly as possible adhering in this, as well as in many other customs, to the mode adopted by the particular race or nation amongst whom the traveller may chance to sojourn. Still, we recommend him to take out from England (besides the bit fitted on the head collar bridle, which may be a plain strong snaffle) two "segundras" of medium power. Have no more buckles in either heads or reins than are absolutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle so much, during the exposure consequent on an outdoor life, as the rusting out of buckles and the breaking or pulling through of their tongues-both sources of endless trouble and annoyance.

Pack saddles.

For simple and efficient equipment both for pack and saddle horses we do not know a better model than that adopted by Augustus C. Gregory, Commander of the North Australian Expedition, and now Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, with whom we had the honour of serving from 1855 to 1857. The pack saddles, elaborately constructed in England, which we took out to him were at once condemned for two reasons; first, that they were unnecessarily heavy, and next that the points of suspension for the load were so high that the least swaying of the saddle would severely wring the horse's back. The large flaps were saved as a reserve of useful leather for emergencies, and the thick felt saddle cloths were gladly appropriated to their proper use; but the complicated arrangement of wood and iron, combining the undesirable qualities of weakness, weight, and inconvenience, was left in store to await the sale of surplus equipment on our return.

NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION PACKHORSE EQUIPMENT.

The pack saddle, made under the direction of Mr. Gregory, consisted simply of two boards of Australian cedar, about twenty inches long by seven broad, inclined at such an angle as to sit fairly on the horse's ribs, and at such a distance from each other that the spine should remain uninjured between them. These were connected by two stout bows of iron, 1?in. broad by ?in. thick, arching well clear of the horse's back, and having on each side hooks firmly riveted into them for the suspension of the bags in which our provisions, &c., were stowed. The crupper was buckled round the aftermost bow, and the straps for the attachment of the breasting, breeching, and girths were screwed on the outside of the cedar planks. We hope the illustration on the next page is sufficiently clear to indicate the position of these without further description; it will be seen that the girths cross each other as they pass under the belly.

A pair of pads, sufficiently large to prevent not only the saddle but also the packs chafing the horse, were attached to the boards by thongs passing through holes bored in either end, so that upon occasion we could easily remove them to re-arrange the stuffing, and tie them again in their places. One of the thick felted saddle cloths before mentioned was invaluable as an additional protection. The form of the bags will also be readily understood by a glance at the frontispiece. They were of stout canvas, as wide as one breadth of the material, and the ends were formed by a pear-shaped piece let in, and strongly roped round the seams; the loops at the upper part were bound with leather, and iron cringles or grummets were let in, by which to hang them on the hooks. No other fastening was used, so that if a horse fell in the rugged mountain paths, or in fording a rough and swollen torrent, it was an advantage to him to shake off his bags at once, while we were generally able to fish them up again before even such perishable stores as sugar could be reached by water, through the pack and double bags of canvas in which we kept them. Nothing whatever was allowed to be fastened to the bows above the suspension hooks; indeed there was a general order that the horse should carry nothing that was not contained in the side bags. The smaller bags for flour, sugar, and other stores, were also the length of one breadth of canvas. One end was formed by a circular piece of canvas about eight inches in diameter, and the other was left to be closed when they were filled. The inner bag was of plain canvas, and this was covered by another that had been well saturated with boiled linseed oil; these held about fifty pounds of flour, &c., and in each flour bag two ?lb. tins of gunpowder were kept perfectly secure from fire or water; we generally ate the flour as fast as we wanted the powder. Each pair of side bags was numbered, and carefully balanced one against the other, the stowage of each being from seventy to seventy-five pounds, so that the total load of the horse should not much exceed 160lb.

All the horses were furnished with a stout headstall and halter, which may be readily understood from the above engraving, and to which, when requisite, the bit and bridle could be buckled by short straps attached to the ring for that purpose.

Our riding saddles were provided with stout Ds, the straps of which were not stitched to the leather, but either firmly screwed into the wood, or passed round the frame of the saddle. Three of these in front served to receive the straps for buckling on "the swag," or a couple of stout red or blue blankets, which, with the extra shirt and trowsers serving as a pillow, formed our sole bedding. This was formed into a roll a little more than 3ft. long, and 6in. diameter, and carefully adjusted so as to arch well clear of the horse's withers. In front of the saddle bar, on the off side, was a stout ring, through which passed the slings of the gun bucket, which was made quite roomy enough to allow a double barrel to be withdrawn or again inserted without trouble, and was kept from collapsing by a ring of iron stitched into its upper edge; and the tedious process of unbuckling the strap usually passed round and round the grip of the gun stock was obviated by the very simple spring and swivel catch shown in the sketch.

It may be mentioned that we found the spring bar a very convenient arrangement, and only once we lost a stirrup leather when a rider had dismounted to allow his horse to descend more easily a difficult hill; but for such contingencies spare stirrups, &c., had been provided by the commander. Two Ds on either side supported such saddle pouches as were required; we preferred the nearly square form shown in the sketch of saddle on page 36, as being more roomy, containing in one the quarto sketch book actually in use, and in the other, a store of paper, &c., for further supply. Small loops, the attachment of which is just indicated on the inside of one of these bags, led forward for the girth to pass through and keep the pouches from flapping.

Some of us carried a valise, such as is separately represented, and others would make a roll of spare clothing; but it was imperative on all that nothing whatever should be allowed to rest on the horse's spine, but should be padded or otherwise arranged so as to pass clear over it. The hobbles were formed of a band of stout leather, double the required width, turned up and stitched so as to form a flat edge and a round one. In use, the sewn edge was always uppermost, so that the fetlock might not be chafed. They were connected by a short chain, having a swivel in the centre, and a double hook at each end, the hooks having holes pierced in their extremities for the reception of thongs, by which one end of each hobble was moused or secured from falling off. The hobbles were carried on the off side of the saddle, behind the pouches; and were not unfrequently balanced by the pannikin and tin quart, so essential to an Australian, that Henry, our commander's brother, declared his conviction that no one could become a successful traveller till he reduced his equipment to a clasp knife and a quart pot. Bells were hung to the headstalls of the horses most apt to stray, but thongs were fastened to the clappers, that they might be tied up during the day's march.

Our personal equipment consisted of a brown leather waist-belt, with snake fastening, carrying a small ammunition pouch, a revolver, and a compass; the naturalist, geologist, botanist, or artist adding to this such instruments as they required. Some few of us favoured braces, but with the majority they were at a discount. A cabbage-tree hat, or one of soft felt, a striped cotton shirt for fine weather, serge for wet, moleskin trowsers, light woollen socks, and ankle boots, completing our general costume.

Some hundred fathoms of small rope formed an essential portion of our equipment, the use of which will be best understood on reference to the frontispiece (which illustrates an expedient strictly within the range of actual travel, and is here introduced chiefly to show the form of pack-saddle bag which we found convenient, and can, therefore, recommend to intending explorers). This shift will hereafter be more fully described when we have to treat of those which must be improvised by every traveller on such emergencies.

NAMAQUA, WITH GUN, ON RIDING OX.

Gun slings.

An excellent method of carrying the gun on horse or ox back we have seen in common use among the semi-civilised Hottentots of Namaqua land; it consists simply of a bag or bucket of tolerably stout leather, large enough to contain the stock of the gun butt downward, nearly as far as the lock; it can be fastened to the saddle in exactly the same manner as that in use among us, or it can be fastened to the saddle bar on the near side and thrown over to the off. It is generally made of the softened but untanned leather of the country, and fastened by a thong and noose where we should, for more convenience and neatness, use a buckle. Its merits are that the gun lies easily before the thigh, pointing upward behind the right arm, so that an accidental discharge, if such a thing were possible, could hurt no one; it is easily removed by shifting the arm within and lifting it from the bag without the trouble of casting off any secondary fastening; and above all, it is impossible that even in the roughest riding the charge could be jerked forward in the barrel to the imminent danger of bursting it, as we ourselves have witnessed at the first discharge, where the gun has been carried muzzle downwards. The illustration below shows another very convenient form of gun sling, which we have found to answer admirably. When in use, the muzzles of the gun are above the left shoulder, and the stock behind the right thigh. By bringing the right hand back the toggle securing the loop round the grip is instantly released, when the gun drops into the right hand, releasing itself from the ring by its own weight, and is ready for instant use.

GUN SLING.

Cutlery.

Knives.

Tools.

Do not be induced to encumber yourself with one of those ornamented, highly polished, useless abominations popularly known as hunting knives; they are worse than useless, and only serve to exasperate the owner. For general rough and ready work, nothing is better than a strong well-made butcher's knife. The blade should be continued through the handle, which is formed by pinning two cheeks of hard wood or horn together. The hand grip should be long, and the steel sufficiently soft to be cut by a common hand saw file; and we strongly recommend our readers to apply the file test to every cutting tool they provide themselves with, as the hard woods of tropical countries cause endless breakages and notchings when highly-tempered instruments are made use of. In the purchase of a pocket knife, choose one that is small enough to be a constant companion; one, or at most two blades will be found sufficient for one handle. A very convenient description of knife is to be met with in most hardware shops. The handle is straight and flat. A stout stick-cutting blade is at one end of the haft, and a strong scalpel-shaped pen blade at the other. The miniature tool chests sold under the name of pocket knives to emigrants are jacks of all trades in their way, having all sorts of supposed capabilities, associated with a general tendency to uselessness. A pair of stout large bowed scissors will be found very useful, as well as a small piece of Turkey or Washita oilstone. This should have a little wooden box with a slide cover made for it, in order to preserve it from breakage. A few tools, well selected, can scarcely be dispensed with. The following list we can recommend, but our readers must of course be guided as to the number they will take by the purposes of their proposed journey:-

Small hand axe, felling axe (American pattern).

Belt tomahawk.

Hand saw (medium size).

Three chisels (?in., ?in., and ?in.), and one cold chisel.

Three gouges (of the same sizes as the chisels).

Three gimblets (from ten-penny nail size downwards).

Six bradawls (assorted), to fit in one boxwood handle.

Six saddler's awls, ditto ditto.

Six shoemaker's awls, ditto ditto.

One ?in. shell auger (without handle).

One screw driver (?in).

One engineer's riveting hammer (?lb).

One pair of carpenter's pincers.

One pair of strong pliers (bell-hanger's pattern).

Three hand-saw files (one rat-tail; one flat; one half-round).

One rasp, one soldering bolt, one pair of tin snips, ingot of solder, a lump of resin, and small ladle for lead melting.

A few nails, screws, pump tacks, and coils of copper and iron wire, will be found useful.

Billhook, as in illustration.

Billhooks.

One or more billhooks will be found of great value when traversing the tangled thickets, for dividing vines, lianas, briars, and entangled branches. We have found the following form of hook extremely powerful, and capable of cutting through most formidable impediments. The following illustration represents the two sides of the hook, which, as will be seen on examination, are not alike. The near side of the blade, or that which would, when the instrument is used by a right-handed man, lay towards the left, is slightly hollowed, and the edge, instead of being bevelled, remains perfectly flush with it, like the front of a very large gouge. The off-side edge is bevelled, and exactly like that of a chisel. The plate of the blade should be 10in. long, and stouter at the back than most ordinary English billhooks. Instead of terminating in a tang or spill, the metal should be continued throughout the handle as far as the point at which the curved knob at its end is carved out. Handles for these hooks are best made from natural-grown sticks of suitable bend. The wood must be tough, strong, durable, and well seasoned. When nearly finished, a saw cut must be made the exact length of the continuation of metal from the blade, and this must be opened and widened with a flat file until the plate fits exactly in it. A strong wide ring must now be driven on at the upper end, and three stout soft iron pins passed through both the wood and iron of the handle, riveting the ends securely in countersunk holes prepared for their reception. The handle may now be finished, and made to fit the grip of the hand by the use of the rasp, and some pieces of broken glass as scrapers. The temper of these tools must be regulated by the file test. Leather sheaths should be made for them, with guide straps for the belt to go through.

Tool hold-all.

Portable tool chest.

All the small tools can be conveniently packed and carried in a leather or canvas hold-all. This is merely a long strip of either canvas or leather, with longitudinal bands sewn on the inside. The tools are arranged side by side under these, and then rolled up and tied carefully together with a wide tape string. All the edge tools should be tempered or let down to meet the file test, ground and set, before being finally packed. The axe handle should be of well-seasoned hickory, and so made as to admit of being knocked forward through the eye of the blade, and so removed from it, as shown in the illustration of the group of tools on the next page. A grooved strip of wood should be fitted to the edge of the saw, in order to preserve the teeth and keep the blade straight. A leather bag may be also made for it with advantage. To those who do not require such tools as we have described, and yet wish to provide themselves with a very few, of small size, we can confidently recommend the following arrangement. Order from a tin-plate worker a stout, wire-edged tin box, with wire hinges. Let it be 7in. long, 3in. wide, and 2?in. deep. In this, several small files, one or two small chisels, a number of both straight and curved awl blades, a screw driver, hammer head, pliers, a few sail needles, a small hand vice, a watchmaker's drill and bits, a jointed blowpipe, some bits of solder, a little lump of resin, bits of brass and copper wire, some pieces of watchspring for cutting metal, a narrow cold chisel, and several other odds and ends, may be conveniently stowed away. A watch-spring saw needs no teeth; it is only requisite to occasionally run the face of a file from end to end, flat on the edge, as if in the act of blunting it, to renew its cutting power. A gun barrel, or a bar of iron the thickness of a walking-stick, can be cut through in an inconceivably short time with one of these little instruments, aided by a little sweet oil.

Camp Furniture.

Beds.

The best camp bed we ever possessed was made on the stretcher principle. The side bars were of birch wood, and ferruled in the centre, so as to admit of their being taken into four lengths. The legs, also of birchwood, shut and opened like two pairs of scissors. The centre piece of the bed was of stout canvas, sewn into pipes at the sides, through which the side bars passed. The head of the bed was formed by fixing two uprights in holes made for them, and then fixing a cross bar on their ends to keep them in place. A very thin cocoa-fibre mattress, cocoa-fibre pillow, and three thoroughly good brown blankets, are conveniently packed in a painted canvas bag, with the framework of the bed. Camp beds, of endless variety, are sold by all outfitters; but we describe that mentioned above as having stood the test of no ordinary wear and tear most satisfactorily. The various modes by which beds, hammocks, and litters are extemporised by travellers will be fully dealt with when that subject comes under consideration. In this section of our work we merely point out that which is best purchased at home, leaving the multiplication of the various objects, in some measure, to the judgment of the intending traveller.

Hammock.

A hammock is a very luxurious sort of bed, but most people are alarmed by the very elaborate system of clews and rings by which it is suspended, and in very deed, even with the most scrupulous cleanliness, these are apt, in places where vermin abound, to harbour a great many; but this might be avoided by having the canvas 10ft. or 12ft. long, and gathering it at the ends so as to dispense with clews altogether. It would then have the advantage that, when it could not be suspended, it might be folded as a double sheet upon the ground to lay the rest of the bedding on. A hammock can be slung in very unpromising places. We were accustomed to keep two (washed, clews and all, every fortnight), stretched to a bamboo pole, which we slung from the beams overhead. One end may be fastened to a tree or to the waggon wheel, and the rope attached to the other may pass over forked sticks set up as shears, and lead to a tent peg driven firmly into the ground. A sheet may be thrown over the pole or ridge rope, to serve as a tent or curtain.

Wrapper.

It is a very favourite plan in South Africa to have the blanket covered on both sides with chintz or printed cotton, quilted to it. This keeps it clean for a long time, and makes it much more efficient as a coverlet.

Most countries have some peculiar wrapper of their own, as the buffalo robe of North America, the opossum rug of Australia, or the Vel Komboars or sheepskin blanket of the Cape colony. We have used as a pillow an inflated swimming belt, but in all cases when india-rubber goods are used, they must be kept from much exposure to the sun, and, above all, from contact with grease. We have had a waterproof overcoat so heated when folded away that we could not again open it; but one of these lined with calico, and covered with thin non-adhesive stuff, we should think would be useful.

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The following statement will serve to show approximately the nature and quantity of stores, &c., required for an expedition such as that to which we were attached in Australia:-

The Party.-Commander, A. C. Gregory; Assistant, H. C. Gregory; Geologist, J. G. Wilson; Artist and Storekeeper, T. Baines; Surgeon and Naturalist, J. R. Elsey; Botanist, F. Müller; Collector, Natural History, &c., - Flood; Overseer, J. Phibbs; Farrier and Smith; Harness-maker; Stockmen, European (9); Shepherds, Native (2)-Total, 21.

Provisions, &c. for 18 months.-17,000lb. flour, 5000lb. salt pork, 2000lb. bacon, 2000lb. preserved fresh meat in 6lb. tins, 2800lb. rice, 2500lb. sugar, 400lb. tea, 350lb. tobacco, 350lb. soap, 50lb. pepper, 500lb. salt, 100 galls. vinegar, 300 sheep, 200lb. sago, 640 pints peas, 2 cwt. coffee, 500lb. lime juice, 6 galls. lamp oil, 1lb. cotton wick, 3 cwt. preserved potatoes.

Land Conveyance.-50 horses, 35 pack saddles, 15 riding saddles, 50 horse blankets, 800 fathoms tether rope 1?in. and 2in., 20 horse bells with straps, 100 pair hobbles, 3 light horse drays; 3 sets harness, 3 horses each; 50 spare girths, 50yds. strong girth web, 50 bridles, 10 pair holster bags, 10 pair stirrup leathers, 5 pair stirrup irons, 40 pair canvas pack-saddle bags, 100 straps, 200 buckles, 4 leather water bags, 20 pair spurs, 150lb. leather for repairs, 600 horseshoes and nails, 240 provision bags, 300 yds. canvas, 20lb. sewing twine, 100 needles, 6 palms, 24 saddler's awls, 48 balls hemp, ?lb. bristles, 6lb. resin, 6lb. beeswax, 12 hanks small cord, 6 currycombs and brushes, 25 tether swivels.

Arms and Ammunition.-16 double guns, 4 rifles, 10 revolvers, 10 pistols, 200lb. gunpowder, 1000lb. shot and lead, 30,000 percussion caps, 20 belts and pouches, 15 gun buckets, straps, locks, spare nipples, moulds, punches, 4 ladles, powder flasks, shot pouches, &c., for each gun.

Camp Furniture.-5 tents 8ft. square calico, 150 yds. calico, 12 camp kettles (? to 3 galls.), 6 doz. pannikins, 4 doz. tin dishes (small), 1 doz. large, 4 doz. knives and forks, 4 doz. iron spoons, 6 frying pans, 6 leather buckets, 6 water kegs (6, 4, and 2 galls.), 6 spades, 4 socket shovels, 4 pickaxes, 2 spring balances (25 and 50lb.), 1 steelyard (150lb.), 1 sheep net (150 yds.).

Instruments.-2 sextants (5in. and 6in.), 2 box do., 2 artificial horizons, 10lb. mercury in 2 iron bottles, 4 prismatic compasses, 11 pocket compasses, spare cards and glasses for compasses, 3 aneroid barometers, 4 thermometers to 180°, 2 telescopes, 1 duplex watch, 1 lever watch, 1 case drawing instruments; 2 pocket cases, pillar compass, and protractor; surveying chain and arrows, 2 measuring tapes, 1 drawing board (30 × 40 inches), 2 pocket lenses.

Stationery and Nautical Tables.

Tools.-1 portable forge, 1 anvil (? cwt.), 2 hammers and set of tongs, 10lb. cast steel, 11lb. blister steel, 100lb. bar and rod iron, 3 smiths' files, 3 large axes (American), 6 small do.; 1 large tool chest.

Clothing.-120 pair moleskin trowsers, 120 serge shirts, 120 cotton shirts, 60 pair boots, 40 oiled calico capes, 40 hats (Manilla), 40 blankets.

Artists' Materials.

Miscellaneous.-5 yds. mosquito net, green; 500 fish-hooks, 25 fishing-lines, 2 gross matches, 1 gross tobacco-pipes; 2 strong cases, or instruments, stationery, &c.; 8 doz. pocket-knives, 8 doz. pocket-combs, 20 yds. red serge for presents to blacks, 20lb. iron wire, 5lb. brass ditto, grindstone and spindle, coffee-mill, 3 iron saucepans, 2 iron kettles, 6 galls. linseed oil, 6 pints olive oil, 2lb. red lead, 23lb. alum, 1lb. borax.

Forage for Horses and Sheep from Moreton Bay to Victoria River, 2200 miles, at 14lb. per diem.-13 tons pressed hay, 9 tons bran, 200 bushels maize or barley, 500 bushels corn for horses after landing.

Medical Chest for 2 years and 20 men.

Naturalists' Stores.

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NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION INFLATABLE DOUBLE BOAT.

Boats.

We took, for conveyance across rivers, or navigation of any inland waters, a portable canoe of inflated canvas, in four sections, each of which, when inflated and laced to a frame, formed half a boat; the whole forming a double canoe, on which could be laid a platform of 15ft. by 7ft.

Inflated canvas boat.

The boat was made by Messrs. Edgington from a model which we had previously constructed and tested as to its buoyancy and sailing qualities. The framework was of ash battens, 3in. wide and ?in. thick. The uprights at stem and stern were mortised into the keel, as well as into the corresponding fore-and-aft batten above; they were secured by cross lashings passing through holes properly bored for the purpose. The gunwales were lashed on; and then the thwart pieces, 6in. wide, were secured in the same manner. The four canvas bags, each cut so as to form half a whale boat, 15ft. long and 18in. in the half breadth, were then laced in and inflated. Each rowlock was formed of two pieces of ash screwed to the gunwale, as seen in the preceding engraving; and two oars and a lug sail completed the equipment. The whole might be used either as a double canoe or as two separate boats, and Mr. Gregory was much pleased with them when put together; but, in consequence of a technical difficulty at home, they were not so efficient as they ought to have been. We had agreed with Messrs. Edgington as to the quality of canvas and of the sewing to be used in every part, but on applying to the Waterproofing Company he found they would not waterproof his work, nor allow him to do it. He had therefore to give over the whole of the work to the company. When finished, we found that the seams were not stitched at all, but cemented together; and, though warranted to stand 170° of heat, we found that with the strain of actual use upon them they softened and gave way. If the sections in their proper form were made of stout canvas, with the india-rubber bags, so large that they should bear no strain, inclosed within them, this would be a serviceable boat-for the india-rubber did not actually melt with the heat, but just softened, so that it was unable to resist the strain upon it. We had taken them up the river, about thirty miles, in the schooner's gig, to fill with fresh water, and instead of standing a heat of 170° they burst at 120°.

Although, as we have stated, our double inflatable boat partially failed in Australia, from the inability of the waterproof cement to bear the intense heat to which it was subjected, we believe that, had Messrs. Edgington been allowed to waterproof their own work, or had the company consented to waterproof the sections, properly seamed by practical tentmakers, according to the directions we gave, the finished boat would have been as successful in every respect as was the model.

When required for an exploring trip up the river, we decided to use them not as a double boat, but as two single ones, and we spent some days in securely stitching round every seam that should have been so treated by the original maker. Every one will understand how the fibre of the waterproof cloth would no longer close up round the threads, as would that of the new canvas, so that, notwithstanding all our care, there was always a little air leakage; however, spare bellows had been provided, and one was apportioned to each boat.

Four or five 6lb. tins of preserved beef were thrust in between the sections in each boat, so as to rest along the keel, our lighter stores were laid as might be said "on deck," and with two small oars in each we started, pulling up wherever there was sufficient water, and when we came to the dry intervals, slinging the boats one at a time under two oars, and carrying them easily with all their cargo to the next water. The voyage lasted some days, and the boats, therefore, occasionally required re-inflating.

Canoe for one man.

If the traveller only wishes for the means of ferrying himself over rivers, he might take a couple of waterproof tubes, not less than 7ft. long and 8in. in diameter, inclosed in unprepared covers of canvas so tight as to relieve them from any strain, and connected by one breadth of canvas for him to sit upon. A small frame should keep these parallel to each other, and about 20in. or 2ft. apart; and the frame should be kept just above the water, so as not to impede the motion. It is a great thing to be independent of native help. If a man has his own canoe, however small, the people will come to offer theirs; but if he has none, they will make a hard bargain with him.

Metal boats.

Perhaps as good a material as any for a boat, if the explorer is able to carry it, is pure sheet copper, of about 1lb. to the square foot. It is flexible, easily worked, will turn and bend in any form and at any angle; it may be folded down to a sharp edge like a sheet of paper, and opened again, a test which no iron ordinarily procurable could stand; it is nearly indestructible, and retains a proportionate value as old copper however much it may be worn.

We have heard of an officer who had the two ends of a yawl or whale-boat built of copper, and, though the stem would frequently be doubled up by touching the ground in crossing the bar of some African river, no leakage took place, and half an hour's skilful hammering brought it into shape again. We believe that the boats, or at least one of them, on the expedition of Mr. Lynch to the Dead Sea and the Jordan, were of copper. If we remember rightly a copper boat was carried in sections upon camels to Lake Chad.

Captain Burton took to Zanzibar a boat of corrugated iron, which was so speedy that the Arabs called her the Runner-away; it would be interesting to know the details of her construction. We at one time experimented with galvanised iron, but did not find it sufficiently flexible to bend so sharply as we required. In consequence of this-when preparing, in conjunction with a long-known friend, Mr. James Chapman, for a journey across Africa, from Walvisch Bay, on the west coast, to the Victoria Falls, from which we hoped to navigate the Zambesi to the Eastern Sea-we decided on building one of copper; and many reasons induced us to make this on the principle of a double canoe or twin steamer: in the first place, it would be difficult to carry a boat of more than three feet in breadth or depth, in an ox waggon, and these dimensions would afford room only for the closest possible stowage of our own persons, and a very scanty equipment. It was also, probable, that the boats would have, at rapids like Chicova or Kebrabasi, to be taken out of the water and carried over rugged and intricate country, where their length would render it impossible to manage them.

It was necessary, therefore, to build each boat in six watertight compartments, of 4ft. in length, of one sheet of copper, each of which overlapped the one behind it, just as the scales of a lobster are arranged, making the actual length of the boat 22ft. The "skin" of each section was made of three sheets of copper, 2ft. wide, laid side by side with their edges doubled over each other, so as to make a perfectly turned joint that required no riveting, and was only soldered to render it more certainly watertight. The ends of each section were marked to the curve required, but cut three inches larger, the extra circumference being cut with snips directed toward the centre, so that they might be turned outward to fit the curve of the skin, thus leaving a flange of 3in. at each end of the section, a strip of copper 6in. wide was doubled and slipped over both parts, riveted and soldered, the necessary surfaces having been previously tinned.

We hope the engraving on the next page will make this plan tolerably plain. The end to the right is left unfinished, with the separate pieces a little apart ready to be put together; the farther shows the manner in which the flange of the foremost section overlaps the after, and is bolted to it with copper screws and nuts, leaving a space between, into which the hand and arm could be thrust if it were needful to reach the bottom; the water would flow in or out of this narrow space freely, the compartments only being guarded against leakage; the nuts were all on the inside, and the iron key shown in the sketch was for the purpose of turning them on or off, while the heads were held outside by the screw wrench. The copper was kept in shape by an inner frame of wood, and strengthened externally by seven rib-bands or stringers of good straight grained red deal, running the entire length, of which two served for gunwales and one for the keel, the ends of this being let into sockets formed in the pieces of copper which were doubled over the stem and stern post. One of the connecting beams is shown in this sketch, and also the rings by which the sections were to be carried when separated for overland conveyance.

METHOD OF BUILDING AND CONNECTING SECTION OF COPPER BOAT.

COPPER BOATS ADJUSTED SIDE BY SIDE.

For the purpose of keeping the cargo dry and secure from pilfering, it was necessary that each section should have its own deck, and this, to bear the weight of people standing on it, had to be made of ?in. plank, covered like the other parts with copper. Around each hatchway were two mouldings, ?in. high, the hollow between which, in heavy rains, we intended to fill with wax or grease, so that when the corresponding moulding of the hatch fitted into it it might be watertight. The connecting beams were 12ft. long, and made each of two pieces of ?in. red deal, 2in. wide, so as to afford us, with the platform laid on them, an available deck space of 12ft. by 20ft., on which, when the river was broad and open, we might live or work with comfort; while, if it narrowed, as we expected it would at Kansalo, Chicova, or Kebrabasi, we could separate the boats and take each through singly, towing the deck-raft, or even, if necessary, casting it adrift and trusting to pick it up as the current brought it down. Two ?in. planks, 9in. deep and 4ft. long, so as to catch the bolts at either end of the section, served to support the rowlocks. Each boat was provided with her own rudder, and we purposed, if necessary, to connect the tillers by a light rod, although we believe she would have steered by one alone. The masts were shipped in a wooden case, between the foremost and the next section, and the mode of setting the lug sails and awning will, we trust, be made sufficiently plain by the engraving. Care had to be taken that no iron or other metal capable of exerting a corrosive action came in contact with any part of the copper that was likely to be wetted. And the reader will pardon us if, while stating that the whole was built piece by piece in a little bedroom scarce 8ft. by 12ft., we take this opportunity of paying a slight tribute of gratitude to our warmhearted friend Frederick Logier, to whose hospitality we were mainly indebted for the means of completing our equipment, and who fell a victim to the fever so fearfully prevalent in Cape Town in October, 1867. The ensign, kindly made for us by a lady of that town, after having floated over our house at Logier Hill, on the Zambesi, and served as the flag of our little artillery corps at Otjimbengue, we still preserve as a relic of the journey.

The difficulties of the road, and deficiency of carriage, which compelled us to leave behind eight out of the twelve sections, and our expedients to replace them, will be more fully described hereafter: we, therefore, append only an abstract of the materials employed in building:-

76 sheets copper, 4ft. by 2ft. 16oz. to the foot, at 1s. 6d. per foot (but, as the supply was limited, we had to take some heavier, and consequently more expensive), one sheet same size 16lb. for stem, and stern post and rudder fittings ￡51 12 0

100?in. copper, screwed bolts and nuts, 3in., at 1s. 1d. 5 8 4

80 ditto ditto ditto 5in., at 1s. 5d. 5 13 4

5 ditto ditto ditto 7in., at 1s. 9d. 0 8 9

300 leather washers 1 5 0

174?lb. solder, at 1s. 6d.

5lb. fine tin, at 2s. 3d.

Extra quantity not specified 13 4 4

0 11 3

3 15 1?

17 10 8?

Men's time for soldering 17 17 6

Coke 1 2 6

2 nut wrenches 0 11 3

4lb. of sal ammoniac, at s. 6d. 0 6 0

4lb. of resin, at 4?d. 0 1 6

1 bottle of spirit of salts 0 1 4

6lb. of lead, at 4?d. 0 2 3

3lb. of copper boat nails, at 3s. 6d. 0 10 6

2lb. of nails and 2lb. of rivets, at 3s. 0 12 0

3 steel punches, at 1s. 0 3 0

2 pair of rowlocks, with sockets and screws 0 7 6

Total ￡103 13 5?

CAMP SCENE IN AFRICA.

It is impossible, at this distance of time, to collect every item used, nor is it necessary to do more than to give an approximate idea of the cost and proportion used of the principal materials. Perhaps the wood, with a lad to assist in working it, cost about 10l.; paint, oil, sails, and other extras, about 10l. more; and 10l. freight from Cape Town to Walvisch Bay. We think 6d. per lb. was allowed on such old copper as was brought back.

Tents, Canvas Buckets and Articles made of Canvas generally.

Tent-pitching.

In an army where men are plentiful and tents very few, the eighteen or twenty fortunate fellows to whom a bell tent may be allotted, can pitch it easily and rapidly enough; one, standing inside, will hold up the central pole, while the others, driving pegs all round, draw out and affix the cords to them. We found, however, when accompanying the division in Kafirland under General Somerset, that we could set up our own tent, shared by Mr. Hoole, the interpreter, almost as quickly alone, leaving our friend's servant at liberty to prepare our meal. Our plan was to make two knots on the cord used for lashing up the tent, one marking the radius of the inner line of pegs and the other that of the outer, setting a central peg into the ground and looping over it the end of the line; we held another at the knots, and with it drew the two concentric circles. Twenty pegs are necessary for each. We, therefore, threw four on the quarters of each circle, and distributing four between each, drove them all into the ground; then spreading the tent in the space, we looped on all the lines, and inserting the pole, raised it up, its division into two pieces much facilitating this, and tightened the cords at leisure. (See illustration, "Camp Scene in Africa.")

Patrol tent.

Our patrol tent was just three yards of double width calico; a small cord was stitched along the middle and loops of tape along the sides. The diagonal pieces cut out of one end were stitched on to form the flaps of the other, and a couple of small sticks for the supports, the size of ramrods, were easily secured with the straps of our gun-bucket on the right side of the saddle.

CALICO PATROL TENT.

CALICO PATROL TENT.

Our little tent weighed next to nothing; it was seven feet in length, thirty inches high, and nearly thirty inches wide. We rolled our blankets in it, and so kept them clean. The package was carried strapped across the front of the saddle, and the latter, when set in one end of the tent, formed an additional protection to the head, and no rain ever penetrated our little dwelling, unless when a violent side wind would force through the interstices of the calico a slight sprinkling of minute drops, which would lie like dew outside the blanket in the morning. Waterproof material is not required for a tent; oiling the canvas or calico would only rot it; stout well-woven canvas is nearly waterproof in itself, and no matter how porous or open the material, the power of a tent to keep out rain depends more on the "pitch" of its sides or roof than anything else. Let a plate of glass lie in a sloping position, and let a drop of water be touched upon its under surface, if that surface makes an angle of less than 45° with the horizon the water will drop off it, but if the angle be above 45° it will run from top to bottom along the lower side; in like manner if the sides of the tent are pitched at a higher angle than 45° with the horizon, the heaviest shower will run down them instead of penetrating. A piece of waterproof is, however, very convenient to lay upon the ground to spread the blankets on.

Gipsy tent.

Most of our readers who have visited the by-lanes and breezy downs of England, will be familiar with, at least, the exterior of the gipsy's tent. Its mode of arrangement is both ingenious and thoroughly practical. We know of no plan by which a comparatively comfortable resting place can be extemporised equal to it. Blankets, skins, mats, canvas, or old rugs, serve to form a covering. The thicket furnishes the hazel wands or "benders," of which there are usually eight, of 7ft. long, and almost any description of tough wood, the "hole piece" and farmer's gate shivers are not unfrequently purloined by the Romany Rye to be thus utilised. A red hot poker serves to bore the holes. A few pieces of odd cord keep the framework in place, and a set of pegs is readily cut from the nearest hedge.

GIPSY TENT FRAME.

The ends of the benders intended for insertion in the earth are usually fire-hardened, and one set will, with care, last a whole season. The above illustration will better explain the mode by which the contrivance is arranged than would any further description.

Tente d'abri.

The tente d'abri, as used by the French army, is an extremely useful arrangement for a small band of travellers or explorers to provide themselves with. It is composed of a number of sheets or pieces of canvas. Each of these has a row of buttons and button-holes sewn along the sides and upper edges, in order that they may be joined to each other, much on the principle of a double-breasted waistcoat, as shown in the engraving on the next page. The corners of the sheets are provided with strong short loops of rope, through which the heads of the tent pegs pass when the tent is pitched. The sheets are 5ft. 8in. by 5ft. 3in. Each member of a party of four or six is supposed to carry his share of the tent, which consists of one sheet, three tent pegs, and the half of a round wooden staff ferruled in the centre like a fishing-rod. This, when put together, measures 4ft. 4in. in length, and is 1?in. in diameter. The total weight of each share is 3?lb. Tents of this description can be arranged by either buttoning four or six sheets together, one sheet being considered as representing the accommodation of one man; but when it is considered necessary to close the two ends of the tent four sheets only are used as a covering, the other two being used as doors. A centre tent pole is also set up, so that a tent for six men has, when pitched, three poles, ten pegs, and six sheets of canvas. When both ends are suffered to remain unclosed, as they would be when shade alone is sought, four tent poles or sticks and fourteen tent pegs are required; there would, then, be two spare poles and four pegs. By digging out a cavity in the earth as described at page 62, the comfort and internal capacity of the tente d'abri is much increased, and it forms a very convenient and portable shelter. We remember seeing a French line regiment, which was for some considerable time stationed on the heights above the Inkerman Valley, most comfortably domiciled in this way.

TENTE D'ABRI.

Lancers' tent.

The Lancers, in Kafirland, used to form very commodious tents by sticking upright in the ground one lance and two swords; a second lance was passed as a ridge pole through the becket or loop of the first and the hilts of the two swords, as seen in illustration, "Camp Scene in Africa." One blanket was stretched over it as a tent, and another, with the saddle cloths, &c., formed a comfortable bed for two soldiers.

A simpler form of tent may be made at a moment's notice. If rain comes on, sit upright, joining the hands above the head as if you were about to dive, supporting the blanket on them, and allowing it to hang down on all sides that the rain may run off. If you have no blanket, you may still keep your gun, ammunition, or sketch-book dry by sitting on them.

TENT EXTEMPORISED FROM A BLANKET.

Australian tent.

The tents we used on the North Australian expedition were very light, convenient, and easily set up. They were simply four-sided pyramids of calico, eight feet square in the base, and from 9ft. to 10ft. in height (see p. 65). They were lightly roped at the angles, and would set up with four principal pegs, though there were loops for intermediate ones along the sides. Poles could not conveniently be carried on the packhorses, but there were few places in Australia where we could not cut them if needed; and in fine weather, we mostly dispensed altogether with the tents, except as mere sun-shades, and slept only in our blankets. Their weight, dry, was trifling, but, on account of their bulk, they formed the greater part of the load of one horse, and when we had to travel-after a rainy night, without drying them-we found that two wet tents, with the farrier's tools and a few horseshoes, were quite heavy enough as a load for one animal.

Cape-waggon tent.

A very favourite form of tent in the Cape colony is made like the longitudinal half section of a ridge-pole tent. This is fastened to the roof of the travelling waggon and stretched beside it. When the traveller has two of these, one on each side his vehicle, he will find it of the greatest possible convenience. The waggon, with its own aristocratic kap-tent, or humble but more durable wattled roof, serves as the sleeping chamber; while the half tent on one side may serve as a dining or general reception room, and the other as a working or retiring apartment. These may either be raised or lowered according to the position of the sun or wind, or may be completely closed in at night; or, if required, the two halves can be taken away from the waggon altogether, laced together, and, with poles cut upon the spot, set up at once as a double-pole tent, as shown on p. 65.

THE CAPE-WAGGON TENT.

Extemporary tents.

We have found in Australia and Africa, that the possession of a large square of duck or canvas, eylet-holed at the corners and sides, or a couple of good sized sheets of stout unbleached calico, with loops of tape or cord stitched at the sides and angles, have enabled us to construct extemporary screens from sun or wind, or even rain, and when not so required have served admirably as the basis for our bedding. In boat parties the sails or awnings of the boat may be stretched upon the mast or oars, two oars at each end may be lashed crosswise, and set up as shear legs, while the mast is used as a ridge pole, and the sail drawn across them; there is, however, the objection that the blades of the oars if projecting upward will hold wind, and they should therefore be "feathered" toward the quarter whence it may be expected to blow; but never forget that the making of a tent is only a secondary and exceptional use for a boat's gear; if the sail is chafed or cut, its proper usefulness will be much deteriorated; and if the oars are allowed to sag or bend, by undue strain, they become worse than useless. You can no more pull effectively with a warped or twisted oar than you can shoot well with a crooked gun. In a boat voyage on a river, or where you can make fast and shelter your boat at night, if you set up two stanchions three or four feet higher than the gunwale, one at the after and another at the bow thwart, and then make fast a line to the ringbolt in the stern post, and lead it over the stanchions to the other ring in the stem, it will form a ridge rope on which the boat's awning with the yards or stretchers removed may be laid, and the sides sloped down tent fashion to the gunwales, and made fast either to the rowlocks or, still better, to a stout line passed tightly all round the boat outside of and just below the gunwale streak.

If you build a hut, and have not time or material to make it weather proof, the tent may with great advantage be pitched as a lining to it, and it is wonderful what effective shelter may be obtained from very imperfect hutting done in this manner.

We have frequently heard of officers and men setting up their tents or marquees, then building the framework of their hut over them, covering it roughly, and finishing at their leisure, so that, by the time the tents have been worn out, very efficient thatched houses have taken their places.

We should think that a bell tent (such as may be purchased at any town where military stores are kept), cut in half, and supplemented with a couple of squares of canvas, eylet-holed at two inches or more from the edge, so as to lace between the two halves of the bell tent, and used as a double-pole tent, either with a ridge pole or with a rope extended at either end as a stay, would form a very commodious habitation, and would be specially useful where the number of occupants is subject to changes.

SECTION OF CRIMEAN TENT.

Fitting up of tent.

When a tent is to be occupied for any length of time, it will be advisable to dig a hole in the earth to pitch it over, doing so not only adds materially to the space inside the tent, but makes it much more comfortable to reside in, from the shelter afforded by the sides of the excavation. Many of the huts built by the Russian soldiers in the neighbourhood of Sebastopol were sunk to a very great depth, being in fact merely large holes in the earth with roofs to them. The roofs were of poles thickly laid over with brushwood, and then covered with earth, light was admitted through holes in the low framework of the sides, oiled paper being used as a substitute for glass. About 2ft. 6in. will be found a good depth for the excavation for an ordinary military tent to stand over. In digging it see that the sides are cut down evenly, and that the bottom is level. If planks can be procured to floor and line it so much the better. Some persons leave a round bank of earth in the middle for the pole to rest on, but we much prefer fixing a log of wood, cut from a tree trunk, in the centre of the floor. The habitation we formed for ourselves in the Crimea, when encamped before Sebastopol, was thus arranged. We first made a hole in the earth a little less than the diameter of the bottom of the tent, and of the depth before referred to; we then made a pit in the centre about 18in. in depth. In this we sank the lower end of a piece of old tree trunk, 4ft. long and 7in. in diameter. In its upper surface we cut with a gouge a cup-like cavity. We then nailed a spiral strapping of forage hoop round a boat mast we were fortunate enough to hunt out at Balaklava; we then rounded the lower end so as to make it loosely fit into the cup on the head of the block. The bell or upper portion of an old tent was then raised on our mast tent pole, and over it our own new and complete tent, forming so to speak a double roof, having about a couple of inches of space between the two surfaces of canvas. This, by holding a certain portion of air, added in an extraordinary degree to its sheltering properties. We next dug a deep drain completely round the tent, and placed a quantity of broken stones in its bottom. An old wooden packing case was then let in, by digging into one of the sides of the excavation immediately under the doorway. This not only answered the purpose of a step to enter by, but formed an excellent storehole for all sorts of stray matters. The pipe from a small Maltese stove was carried out through the earth, and discharged its smoke outside a low wall of rough stones which encircled the tent. We drove two strong posts deeply into the earth beside the door, across their tops we nailed a strong bar, which served to hitch horses to, rest gun against, &c.; whilst across their lower portions we stretched a piece of forage hoop, edge upwards, to perform the part of a bootscraper. Towards the end of the war we were enabled to procure plank enough to both floor and line the tent throughout, thereby adding much to our comfort. The lining is carried out by placing boards the height of the side banks on their ends, all round the tent, like the staves of a barrel, and then nailing the flooring boards here and there fast to them. The upper ends are kept in their places by nailing short battens of wood across the joints.

The illustration on page 62 is a section of the tent referred to, and shows the manner in which many of the arrangements described are made. Many tents we have seen have been dug out to a sufficient depth to admit of a sort of cellar or lower room being formed; this can only be done at the expense of much trouble and labour. The arrangement of the interior of a tent admits of the exercise of a considerable amount of ingenuity. Cart, waggon, or gun wheels are extremely useful, both for forming a secure base for the pole to rest on, and for a table and gun rack. The tent pole, as shown in the engraving on the next page, rests on one wheel, whilst it passes through the centre of the nave of another. The hooks for hanging various objects from are formed by the natural branches of the tree from which the pole has been made. We seldom make use of the ferruled pole furnished with the tent when we have young forest trees at hand; in the absence of these, the conventional deal stick serves to fall back on.

THE UTILIZATION OF WHEELS.

TENT PEG.

Tent peg.

Modes of securing tent ropes, &c.

Much of the efficiency of a tent depends on the way in which it is pitched. An experienced hand will so adjust his pegs and lines, that the gale of wind which prostrates the canvas houses of the inexperienced, passes his harmlessly by. Much has been said and written in praise of iron tent pegs, and, under some circumstances, they may be found highly useful, but there are very serious objections to their use in wild countries. If of sufficient size and length to be efficient, their weight becomes a matter of considerable importance. Their value to natives is so great that to prevent loss by theft is next to impossible; added to which, it is almost certain that one or two will be left in the ground, every now and then, on striking camp. We therefore prefer wooden pegs, made from some tough sound wood. Burn the points in the fire in order to harden them, and keep a good stock always on hand. The timber of the oriental plane makes excellent tent pegs. A strong and useful form of peg is shown in the annexed illustration. made of some heavy and hard wood, such as mimosa or baubul thorn. The handle should be made larger at one end than the other, so that it may be removed from the head of the mallet, just as the axe handles before described are separated from the blades. It not unfrequently happens, during tropical rains, or in sandy soil, that pegs driven in the ordinary way will not hold. It then becomes necessary to dig a moderately deep pit at the point at which the peg should stand. Bind together a small faggot of brushwood, reeds, or weed stalks; fasten a loop of rope or thong to it long enough to come 3in. or 4in. above the level of the pit where the faggot is buried. Place your prepared faggot in the bottom of the pit crosswise, and then well stamp in the earth over it. A bag of sand, a stone, or a bundle of old hide answers the same purpose. In rough stormy weather, it is sometimes necessary to back your pegs; this is done by driving in an additional one in a line with the first, and then forming a couple of half hitches with the tent rope over its head. It was a common practice in the Crimea to employ an old Russian bayonet in this way, driving it into the earth until the curved neck alone remained above the surface for the hitch to pass round. All tent ropes should be relaxed on the approach of rain, or the tightened cord will, in all probability, draw the pegs, and thus allow the wet canvas to come flapping down about your ears, causing no end of discomfort and confusion. A tent may be securely pitched, even on the sands of the desert, by laying a waggon wheel flat on the ground, fixing the pole over the hole through which the axle passes on the head of a plug driven far enough into it to prevent the pole from passing through; secure your ropes to bags of sand buried in the manner before described, and no ordinary weather will blow down a tent thus arranged.

MODES OF SECURING TENT-POLE AND ROPES IN LOOSE GROUND.

Selection of ground for tent pitching.

In selecting a spot on which to pitch your tent much will depend on the period of time you are likely to spend in the locality. The nature of the country through which you are passing will also influence the choice. When travelling onwards, and merely resting for one or two days at a time, a dry, raised, level spot, in the vicinity of wood, grass, and water, may safely be selected. Do not, however, encamp too close to water in countries where venomous snakes are met with, as they generally congregate where it is to be found most abundantly. It is not wise, either in Australia or Texas, to encamp beneath certain trees, as the branches at times drop suddenly off and fall with a crash to the earth. In India or Africa we have always sought the friendly shade afforded by some wide-spreading forest giant, as we have never known an instance of "branch-fall" in those countries. In clearing the ground of stray stones, tufts of weeds, &c., look well about for holes in the earth, and, when any are discovered, stamp suitable stones or pieces of broken wood well into them. Reptiles of many kinds are not unfrequently found in these underground burrows. We have found a large square of tarpauling invaluable as a tent carpet. When about to set up your tent for a long sojourn additional precautions are requisite. See well to the lay of the land as regards the flood level of the nearest river or lake; the stray bits of driftwood and weeds washed into the branches of waterside trees will be a useful guide. See that no flags or rushes are growing near your proposed resting-place, as they are certain indications of a boggy soil, unfit for camping on. Choose, if possible, an elevated position, well above the influence of the miasma and night mists of the low grounds and rivers. We have often seen a slightly raised hill standing bare and island-like in a sea of humid vapour. See also that no dry grass is allowed to stand in the vicinity of the camp, lest it should be ignited by a stray spark or a hostile native.

Umbrella tent.

A stout carriage umbrella, with a curtain of 3ft. 6in. buttoned or laced round the edge, would make a very convenient shelter for one person. If the curtains were gored so as to give more room below, two persons might sleep under it comfortably. An extra joint would be required to give sufficient length to the handle. A similar frame made proportionately strong, and with a curtain or wall of six or seven feet, might be found useful in cases where the height of a bell-tent or marquee is objectionable. Malacca cane would be a good material for such a frame. We have heard of an adventurous American traveller who had his umbrella tent made of starred and striped material, so that he might be always under the protection of his country's flag.

Canvas buckets.

CANVAS BUCKET.

Stout canvas buckets answer very well to carry water in for almost any distance, and if stiffly roped will retain their form when filled, and collapse when empty; if a little flour is rubbed into the canvas, it will render them somewhat tighter, and will not materially affect the taste of the water, but we prefer to take the stoutest canvas. Keep it perfectly clean, and trust solely to the natural contraction of the threads when wet, to thicken up and tighten the material so as to render it for all practical purposes nearly waterproof. India-rubber bags, especially if carried into a hot sun, and not quite full, always make the water taste badly. When we served on the North Australian expedition, we always had a canvas bucket hanging in the doorway of the hut, just shaded and exposed to a free current of air. The partial evaporation through its sides kept the water deliciously cool.

Mosquito nets.

If the traveller can afford such a luxury, and is likely to have plenty of tent room, and a sufficient train of well ordered and obedient servitors, we should advise him by all means to take plenty of mosquito net, gauze or tarletan, green or blue. This should be suspended around his bed so as to form an inner tent, pervious in every direction to the cooling breeze, but having no aperture whatever by which a single insect could gain admittance. If the nights are cool, so that he can bear plenty of bedclothing, the face alone may be protected by the net; but if they are likely to be warm, so that he lies with the thinnest possible coverlet, and frequently throws off even that, it must be large enough to inclose the whole bed, and be tucked in or otherwise secured all round; in all cases it must be capacious enough to give him plenty of room to sleep, without touching its sides, for if an unfortunate limb should by any accident touch the gauze, the infinitesimal tormentors would assuredly not neglect to improve their opportunity.

The net may be simply a large square, a portion of the centre may be gathered in the hand, and a cord knotted to it by which to suspend it from above, while the edges are brought round and tucked under the mattrass. If two points of suspension, one near the head and the other at the feet, can be obtained, with a light rod or ridge pole between them, the material may be used to more advantage, and it may, if convenient, be distended by a hoop, square or oblong frame of light canes or twigs, lashed together with a bit of cord.

We had one when in India, cut, and stitched into a cone, or crinoline shape, suspended from above, and tucked around under our bedding, and found it exceedingly serviceable-of course, when the real hard work comes on, all these luxuries go to the rear; but it is wise to enjoy them when you can.

In many parts of the world, we might say in all, where flies are found, dense swarms are sure to seek the shelter of the traveller's tent, causing endless annoyance to the inmates by settling on, or buzzing about, their faces, hands, or the work they may be doing-drinking up every drop of moisture from the angles of the eyes, inserting their probosces into any cut or open sore on the hands for the same purpose.

Odds and Ends.

The ditty bag.

There are a number of articles which, although not strictly found under either of the heads we have before dealt with, will be found of very considerable service in wild countries. A "ditty bag" should be made of some tough strong material, such as fustian, velveteen, or canvas. It should contain a large assortment of needles, especially of the larger and stouter sizes; half-a-dozen medium-sized sail needles, three roping needles, two packing needles, half-a-dozen duck needles, sailmaker's thimble and palm, sail hook, rubber, and piercer; roping, sail, and duck twine. (Learn how to use the palm from a sailor on the voyage.) A dozen skeins of black thread, ditto brown; one dozen skeins of carpet thread, brown; six slips of black silk, six white ditto; six hanks of worsted, the colour of the socks and shirts. All these skeins should be wound off on cards, as endless entanglements follow the attempts made by the inexperienced to use thread from the uncut skein. We also advise winding on cards, as cut thread is not so well adapted, from the number of short lengths in it, for splicing broken fishing-rod joints, &c. A few reels of strong white sewing cotton, a little bag of buttons of all sorts, a lump of beeswax, six pieces of strong tape, a packet of pins, a bodkin, and a pair of strong large bowed scissors. A little ingenuity will enable the traveller to perform an endless number of repairs with the contents of a bag thus furnished. The more needles you can take the better, as they are at all times eagerly sought after by natives.

Bellows.

A small pair of common bellows can be bought for about a shilling. Do not fail to provide at least one of these useful contrivances. It is perfectly surprising to note the number of valuable ends they serve to answer. Stubborn fires, formed of saturated brushwood and damp moss, are, by their aid, forced into a blaze, when ordinary coaxing and fanning only produced suffocating smoke and grievous loss of temper. The fine sand and almost impalpable dust which, in some regions, finds its way in some strange manner into your very gun locks is best removed by the aid of your bellows. Laid flat on the knees a capital board for writing, drawing, or the examination of minute objects, is formed. When cutting out leather thongs with the knife, or fashioning raw hide covers for various things, they may be used for a cutting-board. When snatching a hasty meal at the camp fire at early dawn, before starting on the march or hunt, we do not sit on the damp earth, but usually place our bellows on the ground and sit on that. Most of our small job work, such as fileing, soldering, fish-hook tying, and tackle making, is performed on the ever-ready surface of the bellows; and when small objects of iron or steel require heating, either to be worked, tempered, or case-hardened, a hole in the ground, a little charcoal and dry cow dung, by the aid of the bellows, enables us to extemporise a small forge. Larger forges will be described when smith's work comes under consideration.

Canteens.

Pots and pans.

Table necessaries.

Do not on any account be induced to encumber yourself with what is called a "canteen," a contrivance which is in our opinion much like the many-bladed knife we have before referred to. A few months since, when the expedition in search of Dr. Livingstone was about being sent to Lake Nyassa, two contrivances for cooking were brought to the Royal Geographical Society for approval, and of these, were they to be used by a man who would take proper care of them, we could only speak in terms of unqualified praise. But they were declined simply because it would be impossible to teach a native cook how to use them, and it would be easier to give him a fathom of calico to buy half-a-dozen earthen pots, and to buy more when these were broken. It is, no doubt, vastly ingenious to make a pepper dredge fit into a tea-canister which belongs in the teapot, which in turn should go into the saucepan, only unfortunately the class of persons to whom utensils of this kind are usually entrusted in wild countries are slow to appreciate mechanical puzzles, and usually throw the whole lot into the first bag they can get, when the spout of the teapot gets knocked off, and the pepper becomes hopelessly amalgamated with the tea, to the decided detriment of both. Rather provide yourself with a few plain useful articles for table use. In giving a list of these, we will suppose that one person has to be catered for: a well-made strong quart tin pot, with both hook and handle, is better for making tea in than the conventional teapot; it is also useful for an endless number of other cooking purposes. A knife, fork, and spoon, should be packed in a leather hold-all, like that filled with small tools, which we have already represented on page 43. The knife and fork should have the steel of their blades carried through the handles in a flat plate, to which the cheeks of the haft are riveted; those made with tangs are always shifting round or coming out from being washed in hot water or placed in the sun; the spoon should be of iron, tablespoon size. We have, on more than one occasion, had to melt lead in ours for bullet making, which could not be done if it had been made of any other metal. Get two small wooden bowls, such as bankers keep gold in, take them to a tin-plate worker's, and have narrow copper hoops let into the wood just below the edges, this prevents splitting. Nothing is equal to these for drinking hot tea out of; metal cups of all sorts scald the lips if the tea is moderately heated, and earthenware vessels are too liable to be broken. A half-pint horn cup will be found very useful, and is next to indestructible. We have one which we extemporised from an old Russian powder horn we picked up in the Redan. This has travelled many thousands of miles with us since its conversion, and is just as capable of containing good liquor as ever. A frying-pan is worth anything to a campaigner; fish, flesh, or fowl are all equally well cooked in it. Coffee can be roasted, pancakes made, stews prepared, and a whole host of useful offices performed. Do not forget your frying-pan. It is a good plan to have a "parasol joint," as it is called, made in the handle close to the pan, this will, by bending the handle a little, admit of its being folded across the pan, and thus more easily stowed away. It may be well to observe, perhaps, that the "parasol joint" is formed by cutting two slots in the divided ends, fitting in a short plate, running two rivet-pins through them, and then sliding a ferrule over the joint, which keeps it stiff. Take two dinner plates of enamelled iron; these are best kept with the hold-all, in a flat leather pouch with partitions. A leather loop, or D, at each corner enables you to attach the plate pouch to either your own or the pack saddle. Have a tin canister made; it should be of cylindrical form, and should have a division in the middle, a cover at each end, and be capable of holding 2oz. of ground pepper and 4oz. of fine salt.

The most useful kind of cooking pot we know is the common cast-iron crock of Meg Merrilies pattern. Use it with moderate care, and it will last a lifetime. A wooden cover is easily fitted to it in event of the iron pot lid being lost; and should by any misfortune one of the legs get broken off, and a hole made in the bottom of the crock, a good thick pledget of cotton cloth drawn through it will stop the leak, and remain unconsumed during the boiling process. Bread, meat, birds, fish, vegetables, or fruit can be baked readily in or under the crock, as will be seen when bush cookery is treated on. It is also useful for a variety of other purposes, as will be seen as the work proceeds-take a crock, therefore, by all means. An all-blaze pan is another most useful utensil. It is thus made: Have two deep copper bowls made of a size sufficient to hold about three pints each. These should each have two lugs or handles riveted to them, and a flange raised round the edges should admit of the mouths of the two bowls fitting closely into each other like a box and its cover. The insides must be tinned in the usual manner, and the handles so adjusted that when the two bowls are joined they are opposite to each other and near enough together to be lashed fast with twine. The formula for preparing food by the use of these pans will be given under the head "Camp Cookery."

Leather buckets.

Other odds and ends.

A leather bucket, such as firemen use, will also be found of great service for an endless number of purposes. We invariably carried, when in Central India, a miniature bucket composed of leather, attached to the pack saddle; it held a quart, and by the use of twenty yards of ordinary sea-fishing line, which was always coiled away in it, we have often been enabled to obtain water from deep native wells when other travellers not so provided have been destitute of this priceless treasure. In some portions of the East, the wells are very deep and narrow, so that, without some such contrivance as the above, it is impossible to reach their contents. When collecting specimens of natural history in Turkey, we were on one occasion in much distress for want of water, and after a long search discovered one of these tantalising excavations. There lay the longed-for fluid, glittering like silver down below, but far too deep to reach without some shift or expedient, so we betook ourselves to the sea beach, which was not far off, to see what good fortune would cast in our way. An empty univalve shell, not unlike that of an overgrown whelk, soon rewarded our search; we fixed a stick across its mouth, dragged forth the trailing vines and creepers from a neighbouring thicket, knotted them together, fastened on our shell in company with a goodly stone to give it weight, lowered away briskly, drew up cautiously, and thus treated the parched palate and dry tongue to that which they so much needed. Again and again did our good sea shell travel up and down until, having satisfied the cravings of nature, we resumed our journey; and to the sea shell and vine are we indebted for the design of our miniature bucket and cord which now invariably accompany us on our wanderings. We advise, therefore, that one common fire bucket of leather, and one to contain a quart be provided. Guttapercha buckets are very neat and pleasant to look at, but the sun of the tropics has an awkward habit of causing their bottoms to fall out; we, on one occasion, saw six rendered perfectly unserviceable in one day from this cause. Get a good stock of leather straps and buckles of different sizes from a saddler, these are useful for a variety of purposes. It will be well also to provide a goodly number of padlocks, of two sizes; let the largest be "iron rim," say three inches in diameter, and the smaller size of brass, such as are sold at one shilling each-sixpenny ones are useless; keep one key for each size attached to your watch guard, and carefully lock away all the rest. A butcher's steel, of good quality, is well worth taking. A selection of fishing gear, too, is of the greatest value, of this subject we shall treat at length under the head "Fishing." A corkscrew should be provided, the best pattern we know is that in which the worm fits by a screw into a hollow tube. When required for use, the tube is passed through a flat ring in the end of the shank, and forms a cross handle; screws of this kind are conveniently carried in the waistcoat pocket. Tin boxes of wax vesta matches are exceedingly useful; take a good number of these; get also a tube and cap "strike-a-light" with a chain, striker, bit of agate, and spare cotton cord slow match.

Medicine and Dressings for Wounds.

Medical stores.

On one of Nelson's boat expeditions up a tropical river, the medical chest was unanimously voted a piece of lumber; but, before the arduous voyage had been completed, the only regret was that sufficient medicine had not been taken. An unmanly fear of fever, or other sickness, would probably aid in bringing it on, but reasonable precaution ought never to be neglected.

Many countries have an unenviable notoriety for the prevalence of peculiar and local diseases: some are perfect hotbeds of fever in various forms; and wounds from gunshot, sharp-edged tools or weapons, bruised and fractured bones, are casualties that may befall the traveller in any country, and therefore a few articles for the dressing of these should certainly find a place among his stores.

In case of wounds, cleanliness and repeated washing in cold or tepid water as may be best for the particular case, is the most generally successful treatment, and for this purpose plenty of sponge or flannel should be provided; the sponges should be of moderate size, perfectly clean from grit or bits of shell, close grained, and soft. Flannel is a good substitute; but if a piece of either is used for washing an unhealthy wound on one person, it should never again be used upon another, as it might convey infection, and, indeed, it would be much safer to destroy it utterly.

Lint is, of course, well known to be one of the best coverings for an injured part, and a good supply ought to be taken as, although the underclothing, or sometimes even the bedding, of the party, may supply bandages, very few travellers going on a serious exploration in a wild country would think of taking linen shirts, while sheets would be equally scarce among their bedding.

Cambric or lawn handkerchiefs would be good substitutes.

Calico, for bandages or rollers, would be more likely to be at hand in some parts of Africa, such as the Portuguese stations on the Zambesi, or at Great Fish Bay, where a wrapper of six feet square forms the dress of the native who borders on the possessions of the white man; while in Kafirland or Damaraland, where soft untanned leather is the prevailing dress, it would be less certain to form any considerable part of the equipment.

Adhesive plasters.-Of these perhaps common diachylon is the best; but in a hot country, like Africa, we have seen a roll of it soften during the journey, and, in exemplification of its name, sticking so fast together that it looked more like a field marshal's baton than anything else, and the spreading out of it again into a sheet was a hopeless task. It would therefore be better to carry the diachylon in a gallipot, and spread it when required on thin cotton. Isinglass and court plaster are useful for keeping clean small hurts-the fluid obtained by boiling tendons in water spread on silk makes a very useful plaster-though, in trifling cases, we are in favour of letting the coagulated blood form the natural covering while the cut heals up beneath it.

Cerate, which may, on occasion, be made of beeswax and pure fat or oil, in such proportions as the temperature of the country may require, is very useful, spread on lint or linen, as a cooling ointment for sores that require to be kept soft.

Spongio pilene, a material composed of small fragments of sponge, attached to a backing of india-rubber sheeting, will be found valuable in applying hot or cold water to injured surfaces. It can be cut with readiness to any required size or shape.

During the Zambesi expedition, Dr. Kirk was provided with a good store of gutta-percha tissue, in sheets, for the purpose of covering poultices, moist applications, &c. The tissue should be cut much larger than the lint or other material, the moisture of which is to be confined. Other sheets were of various thicknesses, from that of writing paper up to cardboard or millboard, so as to give support, if necessary, as well as covering. He also carried gutta-percha splints for the leg or arm, properly fitted, for inside or outside, right or left; and cases might occur in which the possession of one of these, at the moment it was required, would be invaluable. They packed very easily one within the other, occupying little more room than so many flat sheets.

Millboard in strips, 18in. long and 6in. wide, for leg splints, or 15in. by 4in. for the arm, would stow easily, and by moistening would be easily moulded on the limb of a healthy person to the shape required. A few bandages, 3in. wide and 6ft. or 8ft. long, should be kept rolled up in the medicine chest; but if a store of calico is carried, there is no need to tear off more till they are wanted. (N.B. They should always be torn-not cut.) It is not to be expected that every traveller should carry or be able to use the formidable array of deadly looking keen-edged knives, of saws, and other instruments of torture; nevertheless, it would be prudent that a small selection should be taken, and we extract from a clever little work, "First Help in Accidents," the following list:-

Lint,

Compressors,

Rollers,

Sticking plaster,

Silk,

Small sponge,

Tourniquet,

Scissors,

Tenaculum,

Suture needles,

Lancet,

Dressing forceps,

Scalpel.

Small pocket cases containing all the requisite instruments are to be obtained of any surgical instrument maker. Among medicines quinine stands pre-eminent as an effectual, though perhaps not always an infallible, febrifuge; it is, however, so excellent a tonic that its moderate and occasional use may safely be recommended, and we do not know of a better remedy in case of fever. It is best dissolved in wine, if the traveller should be fortunate enough to be able to carry any. It may be given in rum or other spirit, which is more portable and likely to be at hand, and which is also useful for preserving insects; but if a man wants any peace while passing through most wild countries, or is doubtful of his own powers of self-denial, we would recommend him to convert all his wine into a strong solution of quinine before starting, and to do the same with half his rum or spirit of wine, having the rest strongly methylated for use, either in a spirit lamp or preservation of specimens. Let both these be labelled with a death's head and cross bones, such as is used by chemists in the Cape and other countries, where many of the native population cannot read, or do not understand, English, to signify poison.

A proportion of wine or spirit may, of course, be reserved for prudent and moderate use, as a glass, or even a bottle judiciously given may go very far to gain the good will of a native chief, or to induce either the proper servants or occasional assistants of the traveller to work heartily in helping him out of some difficulty. We have generally found a good pannikin of hot coffee accepted readily enough by the people after a long night journey; but there are times when a fire could not be made, and a drop of spirit, imparting a momentary sensation of warmth, even if it produces no other good effect, has, at least, that of showing that their employer cares for them, and does what he can to cheer them after their labour.

In most tropical rivers there are extensive deltas, intersected with netlike labyrinths of shallow impracticable channels, alternated with shoals, which the advanced guard of mangroves is just reclaiming from the sea, and where tangled, dank, and unwholesome wildernesses and swamps are formed, there fever, in its most deadly forms, is sure to prevail.

The delta of the Zambesi is also a place of danger from this cause; and persons of a full stout habit are said, and we believe with some reason, to be more liable to fever than others of a spare and meagre build; indeed, the Portuguese, when they see a well-framed athletic man, in prime condition, enter the river, prophetically mark him as one of the first victims. We have ourselves suffered severely and continuously from this malady, which generally came on with a cold shivering or ague, and was succeeded by the fever, accompanied by intense perspiration, prostration of strength, nausea and inability to eat, or even to retain the necessary medicine or cooling drink; an immoderately exaggerated idea of the length of time; short uneasy slumbers, disturbed by incongruous dreams-generally of some difficulty previously experienced-or total want of sleep, total failure of memory, and in bad cases delirium while awake.

When the "Pearl" first entered the Zambesi Dr. Kirk ordered that a glass of spirit with quinine in it should be served to the men every morning; and we would frequently, as the large doses administered were intensely bitter, make up the quinine into pills, with chocolate or cocoa paste, or sometimes place the quinine powder dry on the tongue, and then swallow a copious draught of water to wash it down.

We give, first, Dr. Livingstone's remedy for fever; but, useful and effective as it really is, we cannot say, from experience, that it is infallible; and the fatality among the gentlemen of the mission proves that we do not, as yet, possess a remedy for the fever that will supply the place of a sufficient and generous diet, total cessation of exposure to the malaria, and removal to a more elevated and healthy country, even though it be but a few hours' journey from the infected district. The doctor's receipt is as follows:-

"Linyante, 12th of September, 1855.

"A pill composed of three or four grains of resin of jalap, three or four of calomel, and an equal number of quinine; a drop or two of tincture of cardamoms to dissolve the resin to form the bolus.

"I have had a great many cases in hand, and never met with a single case of failure; it ought not to purge; the quantity of resin must be regulated to produce only a gentle movement, which, when felt, is accompanied by perspiration and a sound sleep. A check to this perspiration has, in my own experience, given rise to vomiting large quantities of pure blood."

In another letter:-

"We make a pill of equal parts of resin of jalap, calomel, rhubarb, and quinine; say for a powerful man eight grains of resin of jalap, eight grains of calomel, four or six grains of rhubarb, and four or six grains of quinine; make the whole into pills with tincture of cardamoms. This relieves the very worst cases in a few hours.

"We then give quinine till the system is affected with cinchonism, the calomel is removed at once from the system, and, curiously enough, decreasing doses serve. In some of us half a grain of the mass produces as much effect as twenty-four grains did at first."

A friend in Capetown, who had travelled in the Brazils, gave us the following receipt, used, we believe, by an Italian doctor; there he tells us it was efficacious, but we have not had opportunity to put it to the test:-

"To one bottle of water add 36grs. of sulphate of quinine, 2 teaspoonfuls of Epsom salts, 34 drops of sulphuric acid, and 40 drops of ether; this mixture is called antiperiodic water; a wine-glassful three times a day as soon as the first symptoms are perceived, and continued for three or four days after recovery. If delirious, an injection of 1 tablespoonful of vinegar to 10 of this water."

Warburg's fever drops are well spoken of. Very large doses of quinine are given in India and Africa, sixteen or twenty grains at a time; and we have frequently taken in powder as much as would lie upon a shilling.

Sometimes violent exertion, producing perspiration and exhaustion, if practised in time, may avert an attack. We have heard of a doctor visiting a man when the shivering fit was about to come on, who locked the door, mixed two glasses of stiff hot grog, put on the gloves, and engaged his patient in a boxing match, which, at least, for that time averted the fever.

We do not give our unqualified recommendation of this treatment; but we have often found that, during a period of severe and long sustained labour, we have remained in health, but that an attack of fever has accompanied the reaction induced by an intermission of the work.

Simple aperients should be taken; we have used Cockle's anti-bilious pills, salts, senna, or jalap; and their opposites in case of diarrh?a. With a little opium and a bit of carpenter's chalk, we have been able to give almost marvellous relief to a poor coloured woman in excruciating agony.

Take a good supply of Chlorodyne. Opium both in gum and tincture. A few drops of the latter, placed within the eyelids of those suffering from snow blindness, often prove of the greatest advantage; chloroform must be used with caution; still, in cases of great suffering, it is worth while to try it. We have known one exceedingly severe case of illness in which messengers had to be sent to every white man within 240 miles for medicines, and letters were written on the chance that some passing vessel might take them to a port whence by some other agency a supply of drugs might be forwarded.

Emetics, which are commonly sold in doses, white and grey, and of different degrees of strength.

Sudorifics-among which we have used Dover's powders as a convenient form.

Eyewashes.-Weak solutions, sulphate of zinc and diacetate of lead, or weak brandy and water, may be used.

It may be needful to carry a small quantity of blistering plaster-or rather the materials of which to make it-soft wash-leather, ointment of Spanish fly, &c., or mustard.

Tincture of arnica, used in the proportion of one part tincture to eight parts water, is a valuable application for strains or contusions.

Glycerine, or cold cream, may be used as cooling applications to irritated surfaces.

Effervescing powders.-The blue paper contains carbonate of soda, 30grs.; the white, tartaric acid, 25grs. 1lb. of carbonate of soda, and 13?oz. of tartaric acid, make 256 powders of each sort; or, 1?oz. of carbonate of soda, and 3oz. of tartarised soda, packed in blue, and 7drs. of tartaric acid, in white, will make twelve sets.

All salts must be kept in bottles closely stoppered, and only put in paper for immediate use.

Antiscorbutics.-Almost any vegetable; plenty of sugar; fresh fruit; dried tamarinds; good lime juice, vinegar, or citric acid; raw potatoes, with the strong earthy taste as fresh as possible; the pulp of the cream of tartar tree or Baobab in Africa, or of the Gouty-stem (Adansonia Gregorii) in Australia. Dr. Kane, in his Arctic voyages, found fresh raw meat a remedy.

It will be well for the traveller to limit his equipment to a few simple and really useful medicines, of which a sufficient supply for the maladies to be expected in the country he is bound for should be taken. A complicated assortment would serve only to confuse him, and it is better even to trust solely to nature than to tamper unskilfully with dangerous remedies.

Poisons and antidotes.

Poisoning, whether from accident or otherwise, should always be provided for, and it will be well to be supplied with a few antidotes. Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting-draughts of salt or mustard and warm water, half a wine-glassful of ipecacuanha wine, or a glassful of warm water with twenty or thirty grains of sulphate of zinc. Antimonial preparations, as tartar emetic, are too depressing, and not controllable.

In others, the action on the stomach may be diminished by mucilaginous or oily drinks, as milk, barley water, white of egg, and salad oil.

For poisonous acids use no emetics; alkaline remedies are proper. Soda or potash in water, given plentifully; carbonate of magnesia, Dinneford's solution, common whitening, or chalk in water, followed by some mucilaginous fluid, as milk or barley water.

Against alkalies, as potash, soda, &c., acids must be used-diluted vinegar, citric or tartaric acid, lemon juice or sour beer; soothing drinks as before, after the poison has been neutralised.

For metallic poisons an emetic may generally be tried.

For arsenic, avoid emetics. Take a mixture of milk and lime water, or soda water in equal quantities. Light magnesia diffused in water may be taken. Common animal charcoal may be tried.

For corrosive sublimate give white of egg and plenty of milk; if eggs are not at hand, use flour mixed with water.

Vegetable irritants.-Give an early emetic and demulcent drinks.

Narcotic poisons.-Opium. Give an emetic; pour cold water on the head and neck and shoulders; place mustard poultices on the calves of the legs or feet; give hot strong coffee and free air; keep the patient moving till drowsiness passes off.

Prussic acid in small doses.-Give ammonia or strong coffee; pour cold water on head and chest, rubbing dry with warm towels, and give free air; in large doses no treatment will avail.

Strychnine.-In Australia, South Africa, and some other countries strychnine is extensively used; and a correspondent thus writes in the Field concerning it:-"It sometimes happens that dogs are poisoned, accidentally or otherwise, by nux-vomica, or its alkaloid. It may not, therefore, be useless to inform the reader what treatment should be adopted in such a case. The poison acts very rapidly, tetanus comes on, and the dog soon dies, exhausted by the violence of the fits. If the poison have only been just taken, and no fits have occurred, the best remedy is tannin, in the form of pounded galls, or the areca-nut powder so much used in kennels. But if the dog be already seized with tetanus, the only remedy is the permanganate of potash. I have found, in several experiments on animals, that, when once the tetanic spasm has set in, permanganate of potash is the only remedy giving any chance of recovery; if administered in time it is most successful. Condy's fluid, now so much used in the stable and kennel, is the most convenient form for its administration. A wineglassful of Condy's fluid, slightly diluted, may be given. During the treatment the dog must be kept quiet, and touched as little as possible. This treatment, which has never yet been suggested (to my knowledge), I beg to offer to those readers who may be in need of it; but I cannot speak of its effects on the human subject."

Alcohol in excess.-Evacuation of the stomach, followed by hot coffee, external stimulants and friction.

Suffocation by gases, &c.-Removal to pure air, cold water on face and chest, artificial inducement of respiration, friction of surface, followed by hot coffee or brandy and water.

Animal poisons-stings of insects, snake-bites, &c.-If a sting remains in the wound, extract it, and apply a strong wash of ammonia in spirit or water, or, in its absence, warm oil; if faintness follows, some stimulant, as brandy and water, may be given freely for snake-bites; in addition to this cauterise the wound with nitric acid or a white-hot iron.

The trappers of America place great dependance on strong whisky; if great exertion can be maintained, so as to produce excessive fatigue and perspiration, the system may throw off the poison.

In the Cape colony an antidote for snake-bites is sold under the name of Croft's Tincture of Life. This was analysed, when we were in Grahamstown, by the faculty, and the ingredients they found were pronounced good; but there were others which the maker would not reveal. We have seen several testimonials as to its efficacy. The medical men, however, arranged a case somewhat larger than a fifty-likeness carte-de-visite album, containing lancet, ligature, cupping-glass, a bottle of ammonia, lint, and a piece of lunar caustic; but it was much too large to be carried about by any traveller in expectation of being bitten by a snake. We therefore took a small tin vesta match box, put a lancet, small bottle of ammonia, lunar caustic, in a stoppered bottle, lint, and ligature in it, and kept it in the waggon. We are happy to say we never had to put it to the test, for we were never bitten by a serpent. Sometimes a little judicious humouring of the patient does as much good as medicine.

In the Bushman country around Lake Ngami, where the entrails of the Ngwa or poisonous grub are used to give such fatal effect to the insignificant-looking arrows, a small plant with a yellow star-like flower, called the Kala-haetlwe, is used as an antidote. Fat is also rubbed into the wound and also given internally till the effect of the poison is neutralised.

The snake-stone of India, if it has any good qualities, seems to owe them entirely to its absorbent properties, and these would be more efficiently performed by scarification and the cupping glass.

Ipecacuanha, applied as a poultice, has been by some considered a most valuable antidote to snake-bites. This antidote is equally effective in the stings of scorpions and other venomous reptiles.

The fiction of the cup of rhinoceros horn, which caused all poisonous drink to effervesce and bubble over, is so firmly believed, that we have known a Cape trader offer to drink any poison we could give him out of such a cup; but we declined the experiment.

A preparation of the guaco plant is highly esteemed on the Spanish main as an antidote against bites of snakes of all kinds.

Acetic acid rubbed on the wound caused by the bite of scorpions or centipedes is very efficacious. In the absence of this, chewed tobacco is often made use of; but the natives are of opinion that the scorpion inflicting the wound crushed between two stones and laid on the injured part is a certain remedy, and, from what we have been enabled to learn from them on the subject, there seems to be some foundation for the belief.

Imaginary ailments of natives.

The imaginary ailments of natives are neither few nor far between; but it is not at all times wise to disregard them. We have known our followers come, night after night, with small sicknesses, when we had but a few doses of fever mixture left, and, by some chance or other, a little currie powder. Now, had we sent away a man with his "little sickness," he would have been really ill next morning. We therefore looked as wise as possible, felt his pulse, looked at his tongue, read a paragraph or two, and sent him to boil some water and bring it to us; we then carefully measured out a spoonful of currie powder, mixed it, saw him drink it off, and sent him to make himself as warm as he could till next morning.

Horse Medicines and Farrier's Stores.

If an expedition is about to be undertaken where the services of many horses or mules are required, a list of medicine stores should be furnished for them, which may be approximately as follows, the quantities being arranged for twenty animals for six months:-

Raw linseed oil, 4 galls.

Olive oil, 2 galls.

Spirits of nitre, ether, 4lb.

Nitrate of potash, 6lb.

Barbadoes aloes, 2lb.

Potassio tartrate of antimony, 1lb.

Camphor, 1lb.

Ginger, in powder, 6lb.

Palm oil, 6lb.

Tincture of opium, 4lb.

Spirits of ammonia, 4lb.

Spirits of turpentine, 1 gall.

Cantharides, in powder, 1lb.

Lard, 6lb.

Linseed meal, 8lb.

Compound tincture of myrrh and aloes, 2lb.

Calomel, 1oz.

Nitrate of silver, ?oz.

Sulphate of copper, 2lb.

Alum, 2lb.

Sugar of lead, 1lb.

Sulphate of iron, 2lb.

Powdered gentian, 4lb.

Prepared chalk, 6lb.

Stockholm tar, 10lb.

Tow, 6lb.

Old flannel and sheeting for bandages, two or three sponges, a packet of pins, a hank of fine twine, six pieces of coarse tape, a pestle and mortar, set of scales and weights, palate knife, graduated measure, a quire of whitey-brown paper, two pairs of scissors, one straight and the other curved; a drenching-horn, phleam, lancet (horse size), glyster syringe (quart size), and blood can. Hoof picker, searcher, drawing knife, buffer, pincers, shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, and set of hobbles. The use of these matters will be treated on under the head of "Veterinary Surgery."

Lamps, Lights, and Lanterns.

Lamps.

About the most simple and effective lamp we have ever seen is that used by the Portuguese at Tette, in their illuminations; it consists of a shallow pan of clay, as big as the palm of the hand, slightly baked, or, perhaps, merely sun-dried-to contain the oil-a spoonful of salt is tied up in a piece of rag, the ends being left just long enough for a wick, and this cheap and simple arrangement serves all the purposes of out-door illumination. Sticks about three feet high, with their upper ends cleft into three parts, which are kept open by the insertion of a wedge, are planted in lines along the streets, and the lamps supported on these, or ranged along the porticoes or fences of the various houses, burn brightly and steadily for many hours, defying even a tolerably stiff breeze to blow them out. The oil used is that of the ground nut, which, beside being cheap and plentiful, is so pure that it may be used for almost any purpose, scarcely an article of food in Tette being prepared without it; in fact, the nut itself, which may be eaten plain, roasted, treated as a "confect" in various ways, or infused as a substitute for coffee, contains so much essential oil that it will burn for more than a minute with as bright a flame as a good candle; when arranged one over the other on a stick or wire they give a good permanent light.

MAKE-SHIFT LAMPS.

It is often necessary, however, for the traveller to supply himself with light when the grease at his command is neither liquid enough to rise through the fibres of a wick, nor hard enough to be moulded into a candle. In this case, the wick should be allowed to rest on and overhang a little the sides of the vessel used as a lamp-a cup of earthenware, a common tin cap box, or even a bit of tin or sheet iron bent up will answer well enough; the flame soon heats the side sufficiently to melt a portion of the fat, and a constant supply is thus kept up as the wick requires it.

Almost anything will serve as a wick-a bit of old rag, or the flax-like fibres of the various plants used as cordage by the natives; strips of bark beaten to separate the fibres, or even small twigs may be used; rushes with enough of the outer covering removed to expose the pith, while on one side a strip of bark is left sufficiently strong to support it, are also worth looking to in case of need; but it is best to be provided with a sufficiency of cotton which is cheap, easily carried, and useful for many other purposes. If possible, a good supply of the best sperm candles, or others of material not likely to be affected by changes of climate, should be carried. On the Australian expedition, we used Price's vegetable wax candles; and some of these-after having twice crossed the line, gone round Australia and part of the Indian archipelago, and made the circuit of the globe-are now in Kew Museum in as good condition as when they were issued from the factory.

The common bull's-eye or police lamp is very useful if only required by one person for a specific purpose, such as reading off a sextant after observation of a star, but it does not diffuse light enough for general purposes. In fact, if wood is plentiful, a roaring fire will give greater facility for reading, writing, or such other occupations as are likely to employ a traveller's evening than anything else. If you want warmth, let your fire be on the ground and sit round it; if you want light to work by, make it on a slight elevation, say from eighteen inches to two feet high. If you want wood, and your native attendants, when called on, make excuses, or Jem tells Sambo and Sambo tells the old woman to fetch wood for the master, do not put yourself to the trouble of scolding them, but take the wood off their fire and put it on your own, and let them settle whose duty it is to bring more. Experto crede.

A horn lantern is good "to keep the light from going out;" but then, perhaps, the operator may desire that the light should not be so literally "kept in;" and it is said that a piece of rag dipped in salt and water, and wrapped round a candle, will answer the purpose of preserving it from extinction in windy weather without lessening its illuminating powers. This, however, requires continuous attention, in order that it may be cut down as the candle burns low. The Esquimaux lamp is a piece of soft stone with a slight groove along the front edge; in this is laid a wick of moss or other material, and, the heat imparted to the stone being quite sufficient to melt the fat laid on it, it is fed with very little trouble. One who has made a turnip lantern in his youth will seldom be at a loss to extemporise a shelter for his bit of candle. A calabash or gourd, with perforations to allow the passage of the light, covered or not with oiled calico or paper; a worn-out pannikin or preserved meat tin; the body of a quart bottle, the more transparent the better; or, what is best of all, one of the oblong tins in which fancy biscuits are generally sold, will answer admirably; the polished surface of the latter serving also as a powerful reflector. We had one of these slung from the roof of the waggon, the bowl of a broken ladle was secured in the bottom of it, and with a bit of cotton wick and a few pieces of hard fat, a light steady enough to work by was secured for the evening; the common forecastle lamp used on board our merchantmen is a useful form, and the shadowless railway lamp we found very servicable, as long as the glass could be preserved.

We have constructed a very powerful reflecting lamp from a large sheet of tin, nearly two feet in height, curved round so as to form half a cylinder, six or eight inches in diameter; about eight inches from its base, we made a shelf to sustain the oil lamp, and a socket to contain the candle if we should be fortunate enough to have one, and behind this we arranged a couple of sixpenny trade looking-glasses at an angle of 90° with each other, and by the light thus thrown forward we were able to write or sketch with facility during many hours of the weary night. (See p. 85.) A lamp commonly used in India is a tumbler half full of water with oil on the top, and a wick wrapped round a stone or bit of lead, with its end projecting above the oil; but it has this disadvantage, that rats may upset the glass while drinking the oil, carry off the burning wick, and so expose the house to great danger. A float may easily be made of bottle wire and three bits of cork, in which half an inch of wick is enough to last all night.

Candles.

It is often desirable to make candles, and for this purpose the hard fat and tallow of any animal that may be killed should be preserved, that is, if it can be spared from the no less important purpose of greasing the axles; or beeswax, if it can be obtained, may be used either in combination with it or separately. If you wish to make dip candles, take a sufficient number of strands twice the length you require, twist them slightly and double them, and let the parts twist together; pass a small rod through the "bights" of as many of these wicks as you find convenient, say half a dozen; take a bucketful of hot water, throw the fat or wax in, and it will soon melt and float upon the surface; let the wicks absorb as much as they will, straighten and let them harden; then, holding the rod by the end left for that purpose, dip them quickly to their full length, withdraw and allow them to cool, and repeat the operation till your candles attain the desired size. If you have fat enough you may have half a dozen or more sets of wicks and can keep on dipping in rotation, thus allowing each plenty of time to cool before its turn comes round again. If you aspire to mould candles, nothing is better for your purpose than a piece off the end of a gun-barrel-and very few African hunters make a journey without shortening some lengthy weapon by eight or ten inches. In this case, pass a small stick an inch or two in length through the bight of the wick, bring the end out through the "mould" and make it fast to another, or pass it through a gun wad or section of a cork, so as to stretch it fairly and evenly in the centre, and stop the lower end; then pour in the tallow or wax, and, when cool, warm the mould slightly and the candle will draw out. In some countries wood may be found sufficiently resinous to be used as candles, but a supply of sticks cut to a convenient size must be prepared and a rest of some sort contrived so that they may be easily placed in it or withdrawn when nearly burnt out; the angle they ought to make with the horizon varies with the quality of the wood, if very combustible they may be set nearly upright, if less so they must be more nearly horizontal.

All candles, however, waste rapidly unless screened from the wind, if the traveller can carry a spring burner, this inconvenience is in a great measure obviated; but often this is impossible, and he must make the best shelter he can with a bit of bent tin, a joint of bamboo, or whatever material may be at hand. If the candles have to be packed in bags where stowage is of importance, and cases must be thrown away, it is best to cut them in two, as the risk of breakage is much reduced by the diminution of their length; in cutting them the knife should be warmed slightly, as it divides them without chipping off fragments. In lighting the lower half, if you have wax vestas, and stick one of them in alongside the wick that has been cut, you avoid the necessity of cutting down the wax to expose the end, and so may save three quarters of an inch of candle.

Torches.

We have seen the Malays, in the Island of Timor, take a soft porous stick, or the pith of a peculiar rush, and then wrap round it a coating of beeswax, to serve as a torch or candle. The natives of the shores of British Columbia and Vancouver Island use a fish known as the Eulachon, or North-West Capelin, as a source of light. The leaf of the cocoa-nut palm possesses strong illuminating power. The pine knot and birch bark of North America and Canada are extensively used for giving light in deer-hunting, fish-spearing, and on other occasions. The bog deal of Ireland is also used. The Damaras, who have a custom of obtaining their fire only from that kept burning at the hut of their chief, carry with them dry flakes of "Kraal mist" or cattle droppings, ignited and held between the forks of a cleft stick; and the Indian matchlock men carry fire in the same way. The mussalchees or torch-bearers of Central India, who commonly accompany troops during night marches, use long sausage-shaped rolls of cotton cloth; the ends of these they from time to time moisten with oil poured from a vessel carried for the purpose. The hill guides usually employ large splinters cut from the Deodar cedar. In Mexico, the brilliant fire-flies are sometimes caught and used for giving a temporary light: the direction of a letter, or the points of a compass, may be read by them.

The sparks from a flint and steel, a bit of quartz, sulphuret of iron or agate, and a pocket knife, will give light enough to read the compass, or to form a night signal.

There are many very nice arrangements for the purpose of light giving and cooking, which may be obtained from any military outfitter; but their chief defect is, that they will only answer their purpose under tolerably convenient circumstances, and become useless when the real hard work of travel begins.

Samovar.

Travellers, both on sea and land, often require to cook a small allowance of coffee or tea when, from severity of weather, scarcity of fuel, or the impossibility of halting long enough, it is impossible to kindle a fire in any of the ordinary methods, and frequently when, from the pitching of a small vessel or the jolting of a waggon, it would be dangerous to use a spirit lamp, an Etna, or an uncovered fire of any kind. Under these circumstances we should think the principle of internal heat, as applied in the Russian samovar or tea urn, might be successfully adopted. This, with various modifications in outward form, may be described as a small furnace for burning wood or charcoal in that part which serves as the base of the urn, with a funnel or stove pipe, wide at the bottom, but tapering rather sharply upward, leading straight up through the water, and having at top a telescope joint, by which the funnel can be lengthened and the draught increased when requisite.

SAMOVAR.

Our own idea is to have an upright cylinder of copper tinned inside, and from about a couple of inches above the lower part of this an internal cone, like an inverted funnel, exactly fitting the cylinder at its lower edge, and tapering up to a small aperture at top. A double floor would be let into the cylinder about an inch from its base, so that it might be set upon a plank without danger from the fire. The cover would have a central hole for the funnel or smoke pipe to rise through; a small lip spout would serve to pour off the water, and ring handles, with chains long enough to obviate all danger, would serve to suspend it from the waggon roof, or from the beams of a small vessel, while others on either side would help to stay and steady it. A broad cap or roof of copper hooked on to links of the chains an inch or two above the end of the smoke pipe would prevent any possible risk from fire reaching any woodwork from which the samovar might be suspended.

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