Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life, Travel & Exploration

OR RA

y have to pass once, or at most to return by the same route. The labour of making a bridge would be greater, and more time would be los

oads, t

to cause the formation of deep pools and dangerous mire, over which few animals used for the conveyance of baggage could pass without the aid of some artificial footway, narrow deep channels may be very often rendered comparatively easy to cross by filling them up with bundles of brushwood or marsh reeds. We were const

purposes, it will be well to give a few plain and practical directions for ascertaining the width of rivers, ravines, and t

h of a River wit

r peg, B, turn to one side, say the left, and walk westward till A bears north-east, which will be the case at C; then C B will be exactly equal to B A, or the breadth of the river, because from the point C, A will bear north-east, and B will bear east, s

correctly performed, the second will confirm it; or if the first be in error, it is likely that the second will

from B, draw through these three points the line D B E F; on this line retire toward F till A and B form an angle of 45°, which may be measured either by folding a square of paper diagonally, or by pegging out a piece of string divided into two lengths of 24in. and one of 32in. See tha

tly increased by resting your rifle on each successiv

ndicular B C, C D, divided equally at C; from D erect the perpendicular D E; retire alo

before planting the stake B, and deduct from the result the distance you retire from the bank. Or, if there is not room, you may draw B C D, as in Fig. 4, diagonally, and contrive

corner; then, prolonging the line C E, bring the stake D in one with A, and produce the line A D till it intersects C E at F; then divide F E into six parts, measure as many of them as you can on the line E D, and you will find as many of

s, their intersection will be perpendicular to the given point. To cross the end of a line by another at right angles, set a peg some distance back, loop a cord on it,

dividing it as much as you wish, but do not fold it in half, and then double the two parts to get the quarters at

wide, just so little spirally that each turn may not half cover the preceding one, then carefully blacken the edges, a

ner of the square is an angle of 90°, i. e., a right angle or a quarter of the compass, say from north to east. The diagonal fold makes at each corner an angle of 45°, or four points of t

A good stone thrower ought to know the range he can make with pebbles of different sizes. If a native is near buy one of his least valued arrows or spears, and get him to throw it across, and then ask him to throw a similar one on ground where you can recover it and measure the distance, but never ask a savage to throw away weapons of the chase for nothing. I

he Height of a Tree or other Ob

, you can take sight along its lower edge at the mark, and along the diagonal side at the topmost branches; then pace or measure the distance from the tree, add 5ft. for the height of the eye, and you will have the height of the tree; because, if the two angles of the diagonal be 45°, the base and the perpendicular must be equal. A piece of thin board, with pins set in at each angle to serve as sights, wou

OF A TREE BY RIFL

sh another on the second stick, so that, the base and perpendicular being equal, the gun, when its muzzle is laid on the higher rest, shall form exactly an angle of 45° with its line when previously laid upon the lower one. Now retire until from the lower rest you can sight the mark upon the tree, and from the upper its highest branches; then the distance from your pivot stick, plus 5ft., will be the height of the tree. Our illustration purposely shows this operation in the simplest possible form; but the frame might be s

s vitiate the observation, and this will also be the case if thirsty animals rush in to disturb it, as in our sketch. Or if the sun or moon is shining, set up a stick, and watch till its shadow is equal to its height, or note when your own shadow equals your height, and the height of the tree and the length of its shadow will also be equal. But, as it may not be always convenient to wait for this moment, the height of the tree may be found by proportion. If the stick is 5ft. and its shadow 7ft., then if the shadow of the tree be 70ft., its height will be 50ft.; or if in looking at its ref

e two rests is 2ft. and the elevation of the rifle 1ft., th

ou have taken the angular height. Still, if the base be not accessible, it is not impossible to measure the height, for the distance of the object may be taken by any of the plans for ascertaining the breadth of a river, or any of the above methods may be performed twice over, as in Fig. 5; first, at any convenient distance, b, and secondly, at a measured distance, c, nearer to or farther from the object; and the easiest way of obtaining the result is to lay down on paper the obtained angles, d, e, f, and g, h

ND ONE-TR

bridge,

n here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross poles tightly. The ends of the ground poles and stringers may be either scarfed and treenailed, or laid side by side and tied with withies or strips of suitable bark. It will be seen, on examining the illustration, that where the roadway ends a bridge begins. This is of the description known as a one-tree bridge, and is made as follows: Select a tree of sufficient length to reach, when felled, across the stream, and of fair average girth, say 9ft.; fell it with the axe in the manner before directed, and then walk out on the trunk and cut away all the branches from the upper surface; then log it up into lengths of about 10ft. a sufficie

LED SWAM

ridge,

ils, t

increases the stability of the arrangement. Treenails have been, and will be, frequently mentioned in the course of this work; it will, therefore, be well here to give directions for making and using them. To the shipwright they are invaluable, as by their aid he unites the various planks and timbers made use of in the carrying out of his art. In England they are usually made from straight-grained oak, which, after being sawn into proper lengths, is split up into the rough form of the required treenail. This, after being faced and hewn with the adze, is passed through a double-handed cutting instrument known as a treenail tool. A skilfully-handled axe, a spokeshave, or a drawing knife, will, although less expedit

ON B

bridge,

ridges,

ruction observed in making the bridge is the same. The first gabion, after being secured to the end of a stout rope, is launched from the bank, and then guided, end upward, by the aid of forked setting poles, to its proper position. Stones, pebbles, or pieces of broken rock, are now cast pell-mell by hand into the open mouth of the gabion, which is held down by the setting pole until fixed in its position by the weight of the mass within it. When quite full two or three stout poles are laid side by side for a man to walk over. He takes up his station on the gabion, and aids in arranging the ends of two side logs which are pushed out to him from the shore, and placed wide enough apart to give sufficient width to the intended bridge. Transverse bars formed of split logs are now rapidly treenailed on, as shown in the accompanying illustration. The second gabion is now launched from the first, the stone collectors with bags and baskets walk out, cast their loads, and return for more, proceeding in the same manner until the bridge is finished. When travelling

e jetty,

E AND FAGG

canoes, which were concealed among the reeds hard by. These, with our own axe, and those of two stalwart-limber gunners, we split into lengths of uneven plank. Whilst we were doing this, a party had been at work forcing down large heavy branches between the two tree trunks, and on these compactly-bound faggots of brushwood (which a number of natives attached to the expedition prepared close at hand) were rammed and stamped down. Tho boards procured by cutting up the canoes were arranged side by side on this bed, their ends being

e baggag

stood a couple of tall overhanging gum trees. We had with us several fathoms of Manilla line, about ?in. in diameter, this was passed over a fork of one of the highest and most projecting branches. Mr. Gregory swung himself across, we followed; and while our head stockman, with a fatigue party of five horses, brought the packs to the island, one man lifted the pack that had been bent on to the line as high as possible; another gave an extra pull upon the oth

foo

it possible to fell a tree so that its head might fall on the other shore, or into t

we went to the edge of the forest, and with a small tomahawk cut down the best tree we could find,

dges, to

dged into clefts in the rocks, or to tolerably broad surfaces of timber buried 6ft. or 8ft. in the earth. Of course strong purchases are required to stretch the chains, especially if the distance between the river banks is great; but the buyer would most likely take care also to provide himse

ll support the rope, while the 8ft. of butt hanging below serves as a counterpoise to keep it upright. This, however, must depend on the height of the bridge; for if the water catches any part of it during the rainy season, there is great danger of the whole being swept away; and it is therefore advisable to make all the fittings as light as is consistent with the safety of passengers, so that in case of extraordinary floods they may be swept off befor

ges and

a turn of the chain is taken; the waggon about to cross is drawn upon the platform by two or more of its own oxen, the wi

G FER

ppens to be forward is gathered in, while the after one is somewhat slackened. The boat shoots over to the other shore, and is kept there by the force of the stream, so long as the bridle nearest the bank keeps

ll shoot over to the left bank, and remain there. In fact, this flying bridge, or ferry-for it partakes of the nature of both-acts in the water on the very same principle that a kite does in the air. The line being made fast, not to the stem of the boat, but to a point about one-third aft, would allow her to ride straight on end with the stream only so long as by careful steering her head was kept exactly to it; but the moment an inclination is made, by putting the helm, say "aport," the boat's head inclines t

ROPE

d down with a rope, and he may then climb the opposite cliff, taking the rope with him; but if the farthest bank is precipitous also the case is more difficult, as the rope will not help him to ascend. Perhaps by walking up or down the be

ngs and

over with a small line, much as sailors heave the lead. We usually employ for

STI

The end of the stick where the twine is made fast is now held lightly in the hand with the ball downwards; two or three rapid and powerful turns round the head are now taken in such a way as to cause the stick to bend. It is then hurled, at a good elevation, across the stream or gorge, where a man who has previously crossed is waiting for it. The string once across, a rope attached to it follows. No one unacquainted with the use of these implements would believe that they could be thrown to the incredible distances which they at times reach. Fig. 1 is an extempore

ft fast

CHA

e fibre of yucca or aloe leaves, or, still better, of those of the Phormium tenax; bush vines, bind weed, or creeping plants; rattans, grass, or strips of palm leaf, may be twisted into ropes; or poles of any straight wood, of nearly even thickness, may be cut and used as links of a chain, by being

ND TWIG

lent links; or they may be split up and spliced together like the strands of a rope; and, from the great number of very small, long, and pl

d twig

uld be laid with the convex side upwards, projecting about 1ft. beyond the cables on each side, and securely lashed to them-the small shoots already mentioned will very materially assist this process. If smaller bamboo is about to be used, it can be split into three or four par

from the cables, but in this case the amount of small line required is greater; and, what is of more importance, the safety of the traveller depends at every step on the fastening of the piece he treads on, while in the former case, even if the fastening were insec

ears, to

y be raised, and secured by stays and guys in a vertical position; or, still better, two may be lashed together as shear legs and then raised. If the ground is good this need not be do

hem horizontally on the ground, with their butts resting against and fastened to those of the upright ones; let the stays come to the head of these, slack them a little till the uprights incline for

till the shears meet, and could be secured together in the middle, as in

GE S

tages a

bring two or three stout spars for the purpose of extending the landing jetty; and as each had the benefit

r his own service. Besides this, even had holes been bored, piles driven, and a staging laid down upon them, the platform, if permanently spiked down, would inevitably have been torn up by the surf in even a moderate gale; or, if loosely laid, would have been liable to such constant derangement as to be practically useless. It was necessary, therefore, that the base, while strong. enough to support the traffic, sho

chain, and to the end of this a stout hawser was bent on and carried to the shore, passing over and lashed to the intersection of a pair of stout poles set up as sh

re and aft, so as to connect all the shear legs on either side through the whole length of the jetty, and others were laid across and well secured by cleats and lashings between each pair of legs, with some at shorter intervals, on which the roadway was constructed of pla

D FLYING RAILW

ying r

, carried to the derrick head, and hitched round it or otherwise secured; and the shore end was extended inland toward another anchor, to which it was hauled taut by a powerful tackle. Another tackle served to raise the guano bags to the derrick head, and on the hawser travelled a large snatch or natch block (so called because one of its sides is notched to admit any part of a line, the end of which cannot conveniently be reeved through). A man, seated on a kind of cross-tree, would pass the hook of the travelling block into the slings of the bags when they were hoisted, and would detach the hook of the tackle, and the bags were eased down to

ontrivance, or the laying out of a ground plan for future ope

ell

will be seen that some little engineering is required. They take a table, the longer the better, and having tested its surface by the eye, and by lines stretched across, they place on each end a large basin filled to the brim with

CAN LEVELL

be straight. Smaller pieces of reed, 3in. or 4in. long, should be set up in each end, and the bore of these must be large enough to allow the water to flow freely to its natural level. The top of these may be notched for sights like those of a rifle, or sliding sights may be fitted on the side of them. This instrument may be used for taking vertical angles by fixing t

r bri

BEAM

timbers wedged for half their length in the solid rock, the next timbers overlapping those on which they rest by 2ft. or 3ft., thes

ROPE

bri

of birch twigs, two of which are stretched across from rude piers upon the banks, and from these, hang cradle like, a continuous hurdle of the same frail material serving as a footway, and attached to the ropes by a sort of open basket work, a c

, to

ilitate the removal of the hair; it is then again turned inside out, and the openings of the eyes, mouth, &c., sewn up; it is then turned back again, and the incision stitched together with thongs of raw hide; the open ends of the limbs are ti

e ferryman's back, with his knees on the skin. When heavy goods are to be carried, two skins are brought together, each man laying hold of a projecting leg of the other skin, and a frame-often of a "charpai," or Indian bedstead-is laid upon their backs to receive the load. Horses or mu

ank, and s

NK

ge supported on latticed-worked sides, like a number of X's set up without intervening spaces; but this would require skilled workmanship and secure fastening. Arches of great strength may be made of thin planks laid one upon another; a dozen inch planks would thus give an arched beam 1ft. in thickness, and when

AB AND TRE

n the manner of those at Stonehenge. A number of bridges of this descri

ty; but their leader observed that ice was forming on the river, and, though the strong current kept the centre clear, he found a place some miles below the hostile camp where it had nearly united. By pushing forward pole

fording

lained that he wanted them rather to press upon his shoulders and keep him down. A detachment of our troops found themselves before a ford where the stream was deep and strong, and while they hesitated, the tall guide picked up a heavy stone, placed it on his head, and walked safely through. It is to be remembered, however, that the ford which is safe

n the course of exploration that the traveller will have to find the shallow places for himself. Reefs, or edges of strata, running across the river are, of course, obvious enough, but to find moderate shallows in a river of more even depth is not quite so easy; the best way, therefore, is to follow the windings, bearing in mind generally it is better to seek up the river than down where fresh tributaries increase it. In all the hollows where the stream impinges strongly upon the banks they are generally

LINES USED I

an mule

e as precipices of a thousand times the height. To obviate this difficulty, he employed one or more mules in carrying roughly-made platforms of stout poles about 10ft. long, with others lashed across them, ladder fashion, so as to present a surface of about 10ft. by 2ft. It would be the duty of the drivers of these mules to h

istances, would not be at all a difficult incline either to descend or to climb, and platforms of 10ft. would give plenty of spare end to rest on the supporting edges, and would not be very inconvenient in carriage. Mr. Percival says he has made them of wattl

ed by travellers who knew the difficulties of the country, without being a

and the exit; or in the rains, some small river might be partially dammed up so as to accumulate a quantity of water, which being let loose at the proper m

al br

ing

ift la

SWING AN

ESCAP

SCALING

D CHAIN

dle for the reception of the end of the pole. In exploring the cliffs at the edges of ravines, the metal seeker not unfrequently swings himself from ledge to ledge by the aid of a rope attached above, as shown in the accompanying engraving. The cliff climbers, who search for the eggs of sea-fowl, roam about at times in much the same manner. In descending from points of danger, where a leap for life affords the only hope of escape, advantage may be taken of the contrivance which was used by the rebels at Kotah, in India, during the mutiny. They, on being pushed hard by our troops, who had gained possession to the approaches to their fortified works within the town, bolted like rabbits in a warren, and made for an embrasure, or rather casemate, in one of the bastions of the outer wall; from this they thrust out a strong, but flexible bamboo pole, from the end of which a rope depended. The inner end of the bamboo was secured by heavy weights being placed on it. The fugitives worked their way out by clinging under the pole, until they in turn reached the rope at the end, when they slid down to the end, and then dropped off into the dry ditch. Judging from the immense height of the bastion, and the rocky nature of the ground, we should have had but faint hopes of escape with life; but there is little doubt that many who braved the peril of the fall escaped more or less injured. We had no means at hand of measuring the bamboo, but should judge it roughly at 40ft. The illustration on p. 347 will serve to show the manner in which it was made use of. Not far from the bastion just referred to, we found a number of Indian scaling ladders. They were much in appearance like large bamboo hurdles. The

ng de

CH, AND L

Y SWINGIN

a hole made in the rock, and to the top of this post a swivel crutch, which holds the trunnions of a long projecting arm, like that of an Egyptian well lever, to the small end of which a rope and cross-bar are securely fastened. To the short, heavy end, several more ropes are attached, by which when the person to be landed has either grasped the cross-bar, or seated

as to admit of the traveller sitting in it, as in a chair, is used for ladies or in

es of

the river, with their ends overlapping each other by more than the breadth of the boats that are to support them. The boats should be brought to the shore and moored a little above the site of the intended bridge. If anchors are procurable, they should be laid at regular intervals across the river; a buoy should be attached to the end of each cable, and a small line should lead from

boat. Intermediate beams, if requisite, can be laid, and planking lashed or pinned upon them so as to complete that part of the platform. Then other beams and planking, sufficient for a similar platform, should be brought on board, for the purpose of finishing the bridge when this pair of boats reaches the other shore. The outermost boat should now pick up the third cable, and

S FOR BOA

ility and strength are much increased by the process. If there is but one fork, care must be taken so to balance the anchor with the stone below and the cable above, or a stock lashed across, that this fork or arm shall be sure to take the ground. The bridge may be also shored against the stream by branches,

in upon the inner bow of each boat, she will take the stream upon that side and be forced outward. The rudder, if she has one, will assis

se and fall, or violent rush at the turn of the tide, should render it unsafe to use them. If boats cannot be had, two or three large casks, placed end to end and firmly lashed to poles laid parallel to their length, may be used at each junction of the beams; or if a number of small ones can be obtained, they may be collected within a triangular frame of poles;

G FRAME AND PA

ng, and parbuck

omfort on the elastic frame. In our illustration (p. 352), two gangs of coolies are represented carrying a tree, but more could be employed if requisite. For rolling, the tree should be cleared of projecting stumps as much as possible; long skids should be placed under it, and if the ends from which the tree is to be rolled can be elevated by wedges or otherwise, so as to make an inclined plane for it to roll down so much the better; at

dd

nd compact pole, which a man might easily carry on his shoulder. It would, however, be cheaper and better to purchase this at home than to make it abroad. A rope and batten ladder is more easily made. The rope is doubled, an eye is turned in to the bight, holes are bored in the ends of the steps or rungs, the

-esc

remember that if there be only a ball of string it may serve to haul up stronger lines, brought by volunteers from without. If infants are to be lowered, it is better to put them in a bag than to tie a rope round their bodies; a couple of pillow cases would be strong enough, and there would be no fear of suffocation during the minute or two of their descent. A man may tie a child on his back or descend with it in his arms, but it is much safer to lower it separately. If flames are bursting from the windows beneath, perhaps the rope may be taken to the next lower story of the opposite house so as to avoid the danger of burning the rope or scorching those who des