Euripides and His Age

beautiful of all these ancient and remote conventions. If we can un

on any plane of realism, is manifest. We need waste no more words upon it. Verisimilitude is simply thrown to the winds. That is, no doubt, a great sacrifice, and fine artists do not as a rule incur a sacrifice without making sure of som

like our ballets, rooted in sexual emotion. It was religious: it was a form of prayer. It consisted in the use of the whole body, every limb and every muscle, to express somehow that overflow of emotion for which a man has no words. And primitive man had less command of words than we have. When the men were away on the war-path, the women prayed for them with all their bodies. They dan

beyond words: religious emotions of all kinds, helpless desire, ineffectual regret and all feelings about the past. When we think of the kind of ritual fro

ion about it. This emotion, it is easy to see, may be quite different from that felt by the Hero. There is implied in the contemplation of any great deed this ultimate emotion, which is not as a rule felt by the actual doers of it, and is not, at its highest power, to be expressed by the ordinary language of dialogue. The dramat

hout falsity any of their human companions. In a novel the author can express it; in a modern play or a severely realistic novel it is generally not expressed except by a significant silence or some symbol. For realistic work demands extreme quickness in its audience, and can only make its effect on imaginations already trained by romance and idealism. On the Greek stage the Chorus will be there just for this purpose, to express in music and movement this ultimate emotion and, as Mr. Haigh puts it, to "shed a lyrical splendour over the whole." It will trans

tes of so many particular individuals, lovers, plotters, enemies, or whatever they are, at a particular point of time and space. When the stage is empty and the Choral Odes begin, we have no longer the particular acts and places and persons but somethin

by modern scholars on the ground that "it does not further the action," that its presence is "improbable," or its odes "irrelevant." The

In Nelson's case a Chorus of Sailors would be every bit as improbable as a Chorus of Mermaids or Angels, and on the whole rather more strikingly so. If we try to think of the most effective Choruses in modern tragedies, I do not think we shall hit on any bands of Strolling Players or Flower Girls or Church Choirs or other Choruses that aim at "naturalness"; w

he Eumenides, or half supernatural, as in the Bacchae; sometimes they are human beings seen through the mist of a great emotion, like the weeping Rachels of the Suppliant Women; t

o the problem of handling these two planes of action, using now the lower and now the upper, now keeping them separate, now mingling them, and at times letting one forcibly invade the other. I ca

the beauty will be such as to keep them there, while of course changing their character. It is this use of lyrics that enables the Greek playwright to treat freely scenes of horror and yet never lose the prevailing atmosphere of high beauty. Look at the Salamis Chorus in the Trojan Women immediately following the child's death; the lyrics between Oedipus and the Chorus when he h

to some cavern

, where the sun

ke the home o

the bird-drove

tiful: to the poplar grove by the Adriatic where his sisters weep for Phaethon; or, at last, as the song continues a

of living wate

iet garden

ancient Life-gi

he meadows,

hole, the most normal use of the Choric odes, though occasionally they may also be used for helping on the action. For instance, in

, or gives some direction, the Leader is there to make the necessary response. But only within certain carefully guarded limits. The Leader must never become a definite full-blooded character with strongly personal views. He must never take really effective or violent action. He never, I think, gives information which we do not a

sitation, because of the danger, they consent. Iphigen?a, with one word of radiant gratitude, forgets all about them and leaves the stage to arrange things with her brother. And the captives left alone watch a sea-bird winging its way towards Argos, whither Iphigen?a is now going and they shall never go, and break into a beautifu

f old men tries for a moment to raise its hand against the tyrant's soldiers. It is like the figures of a dream trying to fight-"words and a hidden-featured thing seen in a dream of the night," as the poet himself says, trying to battle against flesh and blood; a helpless visionary transient struggle which is beautiful for a moment but would be

s an effect rather reminding one of the Greek fable of a human wrong so terrible that it shook the very Sun out of his course. It is like the human cry in the Electra (p. 157), whi

ds flesh and blood. "Well," the critic continues, "if they cannot act effectively, why does Euripides put them in a position in which we instinctively clamour for effective action and they are absurd if they do not act?" The answer to that is given in the play itself. They do not rush

ted impersonal emotion about the Love that has turned to

e smitings back o

en: God's wrath up

Earth, and the

s music st

within. The song breaks s

ar? Heard ye th

ot

e woman! O

a Child

do? What is i

Mot

ther

thing. Br

he means

the C

me

elp! And save t

il

name. Help qui

ther

caught me now:

e, from the spell of their own super-mortal atmosphere, and fling themselves on the barred door

rated for a moment. Even in the next words we

ating at

ou thing of ir

hand that life, t

ne own

he

her babes in

from dawn to

a shriek heard in the next room. It is the echo of many cries of children from the beginning of the world, children who are now at peac

ething which is hard to name, but which I have tried in these pages to indicate; something that we can think of as eternity or the universal or perhaps even as Memory. For Memory, used in this way, has a magical power. As Mr. Bertrand Russell has finely put it in one of

of encouragement and triumph. We must not forget that Aristotle, a judge whose dicta should seldom be dismissed without careful reflection, distinguishes tragedy from other forms of drama not as the form that represents human misery but as that which represents human goodness or nobleness. If his MSS. are to be trusted he even goes so far as to say that tragedy is "the representation of Eudaimonia," or the higher kind of happiness. Of course he fully recog

r in the attempt to combine in one unity these separate poles. In this lies, for good or evil, his unique quality as a poet. To many readers it seems that his powers failed him; his mixture of real life and supernatural atmosphere, of wakeful thought and dreaming legend, remains a discord, a mere jar of overwrought conven

IOGR

d much help from Wilamowitz and Verrall. Wecklein-Prinz (Leipzig, about 1895 to 1905), edited by Dr. Weck

till holds the field (26s.). Supplementum Euripideum by H. von Arnim (Bonn, 1912). (Price 2s.) Conta

ol editions) of particular plays we may mention Euripides' Herakles erkl?rt von Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (first edition, Berlin, 1889); since re-edited in two volumes. This is an epoch-making book, and together with the same author's Analecta Euripidea (

translation, which should really bring out the full meaning of the Greek, is greatly needed. By Murray there are at present translations of the

eitung" to Wilamowitz's Herakles, vol. i. (Berlin, 1889); Dieterich's article on Euripides in Pauly-Wissowa's Real Encyclop?die is excellent, though severely compressed and ignorant of English work; articles in the Histories of Literature by Bergk (still valuable), Christ (in Ivan Müller's Handbuch), Bethe (in Gercke und Norden's Handbuch), Wilamowitz (in Kultur der Gegenwart); the account in Eduard Meyer's Geschichte des Alterthums, vol. iv., is good. Also Ed. Schwartz, Charakterk?pfe

ambridge, 1905); Euripides' Ion (1890); Four Plays of Euripides (1905); The Bacchant

of the Hippolytus, Bacchae and Frogs, since republished separately, an Introduction and an Appendix on the lost plays of Euripides). Introductions to his translations of separate plays: see above; Greek and English Tragedy, an e

hyncus Papyri, vol. ix. (also contained, though without Dr. Hunt's introduction, in Arnim's Supplementum Euripideum; see above). The ancient refere

Euripidea (Berlin, 1875). Grace Macurdy, The Chronology o

Murray's Euripides, Athenian Drama, vol. ii.; see above. The classical work on this subject is still Welcker's Griechische Tragoedie, a great book: 3 vo

by A. W. Pickard-Cambridge (Oxford, 1907). See also Greek Tragedy by J. T

TION OF G

h is really a Greek letter taken over into Latin for this express purpose. Also one or two common terminations are given in their Latin form, Homêros becoming Homerus, Apollon Apollo, and Alexandros Alexander

wel: e.g., "Euripides" rhymes with "insipid ease," not with "glides," "Hermione" roughly with "bryony," not with "tone." OE and AE are pronounced as one syllable, like "ee" in "free," except when marke

prísing, everlásting, Achílles, Agamémnon); if the last syllable but one is short, the

in cáttle, imbédded, pítiful, biólogy: ^ denotes a stressed long v

N

ing the Bib

êra

les,1

book

aêo

59, 67, 70, 121, 135,

non,15

phor

des,18

a,66, 18

ae,4

eus,66,

ve

lian

,133, 175

tho

(Cont

mythical

(? in Gre

man

n traged

s,30, 51

imán

,36, 1

(like "s

ilosop

g of Ma

er,

e of plays,

irtue),3

os,

des,43

anes,25,

nians

ds,

, 114, 120,

s,27,

he Thesmop

10, 20, 12

na,4

rsian War,37 ff.

f,39-42,

s in,1

30-34, 89, 99,

ution o

re of pl

stin

raph

ripid

feud,1

ning

ophon,

s (Grac

rvi

,83, 2

logue,

y in s

sici

8, 109

a,152-157,

ridg

Aristophanes

on in ar

ed to na

ersi

F. M.,64

,62,

des,49

cy,38 f

f a God from a stage machine)

Epip

ken

of Apol

sus,6

itual

ival

acch

reek. Se

liturgic

ethan,

ethans

sle

Athenian

nment," 4

Id

êbi

c?r

64, 156 f

us ex

s: birth

h,17

aphy,

rait

her

r,26

s,28

Salamis,

s,7,

ers,5

right,7,

cism,

to Religi

after de

,30 f., 89, 99, 11

Come

en,28, 32 ff.,

e,23

ue,125,

e pie

Ode on Al

hose slain i

eus

lus

s,70, 7

n in Co

in Psophi

nder,

pe,

"from a key"),98,

meda,

(? in Gr

ge

9, 173, 181-

phóntes

Héracles,9

tan

Women

lop

a?,

of Pélia

52-157, 195, 2

hthe

90, 143, 1

2, 146-14

05, 191, 197,

191 ff., 210, 213 f.,

119-126,

in Aulis,1

101, 142, 145-146, 1

, 143, 163, 187, 19

íppe,

-163, 168,

es,137,

sae,148

,44, 7

men,94-98, 1

us,72,

seu

-137, 140 ff., 1

s, doctrin

r, J.

of Thoug

Revolut

liu

ver

,191

age,1

us ex

he,1

s, Th

nfe

gh,

y, T

n, J. E

taêu

en,

enis

, Childr

der Eu

cl?t

he,193

es,6

20, 39-42,

iod

ócra

al Spiri

36, 13

ace

is,6

nt

a?no

bolus

,9, 3

,45 f

rtal

iati

s, Massa

45 ff.

,82-8

on, S

,39

er, Ear

n, Abr

aul

onia,

êsia

Magda

sk

al Dram

ara

Dialogu

127-13

,106 f

. See Ne

us"),113, 158

h, G.,1

nger,

s, Fal

ervice,43,

(? in Gr

ton

0

íloc

s,34

erie

Plays,62

cism,

osed to Con

, Hora

ekep

st

dy,173 f

" See C

ood,

Ag

Year

ic Ga

s,66,

der Eu

n Mar

, Gas

íph

ioti

ays, p

ul

, Greek,

an War,91,

us,66,

3, 52, 58,

sia

n War,

,86-88,

orus,24

odêm

,35 f

nich

(? in

Na

,48, 1

, 29, 32

ee under

, patrioti

y,70

415,

arch

ient and m

n?tus

rs

ation,

dic

gues,

theus

Aesc

oras,3

ágor

19, 76,

on fro

ion,1

on,35, 64,

me,

gew

ragedy,62-6

s,64

3 f., 142

ll, B

s,29,

e of,

s,23 f

-play

t, W

tions,78

re,60, 20

G. B

,9, 18,

pedition,13

y,130

nide

of Greek T

-139, 175-1

tes,2

,45 f.,

om),38, 50,

,9, 11, 3

ax

ne,34,

,153, 1

yránnus,3

octê

rta

s in tr

ige

choru

esis

n,43 f., 11

ne,18,

, shift

itu

yson

es,4

es,37, 41

See Deus

us,43

s o

ppoly

ia. See Ar

cian

,107-110,

heus,

sto

itio

th cen

y,62-67,

art

, origi

in, see

ce,24

etc.,

rmanc

gic," 10,

ations

log

n-spirit,

tude in ar

. W.,8, 10

rian

e," 38

,31, 114,

and Peloponn

, H.

man,

witz,1

the Si

38, 50, 92

thens,32 f

s,84 ff., 1

us,1

d and Ne

us

xis

wich Press, Ltd.,

h

Unive

br

ern Kn

ies of New and Spec

IT

MURRAY, D.Litt

ISHER, M.

ARTHUR TH

T. BREWS

Universit

ous literature for a large section of the public who are inte

that the simple willing appetite of sharp-set ignorance is not specially common nowadays; what is far more common is a hunger which has been partially but injudiciously filled, with mo

, operating with the ease and interesting freedom of a specialist dealing with his ow

w being issued which better d

nsed on prize days, the pupils would find more pleasure and profit. If the publishers want a motto

its wider and sustained success, surely, comes from the fact that it has to a large ext

little, and none too poor to give

h 256 Pages 2/6

and Ge

RENCH RE

t is coloured with all the militancy of

Y OF WAR

th much interest and pleasure, admiring the skill with which you hav

AR EXP

otia" Expedition. (With Maps.) "A very freshly

PENING-UP

Maps.) "The Home University Library is much

DI?VAL

tion of the fact that it takes a complete master of the

Y & MODERN TI

ide range of knowledge and an artist's p

OF OUR TIM

vitality into his story, and to give us the flesh

IVILISATI

s of facts, Professor Giles never becomes dull. He is always ready with a

DAWN O

f Ancient History, Oxford. "There is not a page i

HISTORY

Political

l Table. "It takes its place at once among the a

CA

e appeal to the man who wants to know something

S & PROBLE

ate of the India Office. "Just the book which newspaper readers re

.

sketch of Roman character and of what

AMERICAN

History, Wisconsin University. (With

FARE IN

suggestion for the historical s

STER M

shipping progress and adventure. . . I

NAPO

eat Bonaparte's youth, his career, and his downfall, with some s

NAVY AND

al power from early times, and discusses its princip

repa

of. Gilbert Murray, D

. By F. Ll. G

. By D. G. Hogar

EUROPE. By Herbert

N. By Robert Munro

EMPIRE. By Nor

N. By Principa

OF RUSSIA. By

Y. By D. G.

O-DAY. By A

O-DAY. By Ch

OTLAND. By R.

. By Prof. W.

ir Laurence

F SPAIN. By J. Fitzmauri

ture a

HAKE

f-a-dozen more learned books on Shakespeare in the las

H LITERATU

together a fresh and in

KS IN FRENC

e how a better account of French Literature c

RCHIT

to architecture are, as a rule, not worth much. This volume is a welcome

H LITERATU

man to put an outline of English Medi?val Literature before the uninstructed public. His knowled

ENGLISH

dy of the different streams that went to the making

WRITERS

"An admirable summary from Franklin to Mark

TERS AND

half-tone illustrations.) From th

HNSON AND

n Bail

ITERATURE

D. A review of one of the greatest lite

TORIAN AGE

ts Enemies"-"The Great Victorian Novelists"-"The Gre

repa

L. By Miss Jane Har

. By Prof. Gilbe

RE. By Prof. J

S TIME. By Mis

NCE. By Miss

E RENAISSANCE. By

TION. By Prof.

STE. By Tho

D HIS CIRCLE. By

USSIA. By C. T. Ha

RY & LITERATURE. B

ie

ERN GE

ous study that was wont to be! . . . But Miss Marion Newbigin invests its

VOLUTION

ed.) "The information is as trustworthy as first-hand knowledge can make it. . . . Dr Scott's cand

LTH AND

adds to a thorough grasp of the problems an illuminating style, and an arrest

UCTION TO

onspicuous success the task he is so exceptionally qualified to undertake. For he is o

E ANIM

ge. (Many Illustrations.) "A delightful and instructive epitome of animal (a

EVOL

y-coloured and romantic panorama, opening up, like no other book we

ME AND

formation from one occupying the highest positio

CHICAL

, 1873-1910. "What he has to say on thought-reading, hypnotism, telepathy, crystal-v

ASTR

Original in thought, eclectic in substance, and critical in tre

DUCTION T

son's delightful literary style is well known; and here he discourses freshly and easily on the metho

MATE AN

y. (With Diagrams.) "The author has succeeded in presenting in a very lucid and agreeable manner

NTHRO

An absolutely perfect handbook, so clear that a child could understand it, s

INCIPLES O

subject which, while of importance to all, does not readily lend itself to untechnical explanati

TER AND

ly accomplished the very difficult task of making phy

GY, THE STUD

hnical handling of an unwieldy science, suggesting rather than dogm

AKING OF

fascinating little volume. . . . Among the many good things

E HUMA

e of Surgeons. (Illustrated.) "It literally makes the 'dry bones' to live. It will ce

LECTR

Illustrated.) "It will be appreciated greatly by learners and by the great number of amateurs w

GIN AND NAT

essor of Bio-Chemistry, Un

CHEM

lege, London. Presents clearly, without the detail demanded by the expert, t

repa

By Sir T. H. Holl

y Prof. J. B.

. D. Fraser Har

of. J. A. Thomson and

UROPE. By Prof.

Sir John Murray

phy and

OHAMM

ling's worth of wisdom. . . . A delicate, humorous, and most

OBLEMS OF

the street' will recognise at once to be a boon. . . . Consi

BUDD

vely as well as very learnedly the philosophy of Buddhism a

ITY: Its ORIGI

ight, clarity, and proportion; and in the later chapters Dr Selbie proves hi

ET

d though closely reasoned outline of the logic of good conduct. . . . This non-techni

ING OF THE

is own line, mentioning opposing views only occasionally, and has produced, as a r

THEIR RISE a

mple, direct, unhackneyed, and should find appreciation where a m

ARATIVE

er, D.Litt., Principal of

repa

. By Prof. George

NEW TESTAMENTS. By

M of THOUGHT. By Pr

ILOSOPHY. By Cl

al S

ARLI

K.C.S.I., Clerk of the House of Commons. "The best book on the history and pr

STOCK E

a revelation. . . . The book is as clear, vigorous, and sane as Bagehot's '

SH NAT

g as it is learned. No book co

SOCIALIS

Admirably adapted for the purp

ONSER

e great little books which seldom appear mo

SCIENCE

nique position among living economists. . . . Or

LIBE

re quality. . . . We have nothing but praise for the rapid and masterly summaries of the a

VOLUTION

ity of Leeds. "A volume so dispassionate in terms may be read with prof

GRICU

results of laboratory work at the University

NTS OF EN

aw at Oxford. "Contains a very clear account of the elementary

Introduction to the

ingly comprehensive volume. . . . It is a remarkable performance, distinguished in its c

S OF POLITI

"Its importance is not to be measured by its price. Probably the best recent cr

HE NE

unt extant of the organisation of the newspaper press,

repa

GLAND: From Bacon to Lo

ND: From Bentham to J. S.

: From Herbert Spencer to To

ND THEIR CIRCLE. B

E COMMUNITY. By Vis

W. By Prof. P. Vi

VICE. By Grah

E LIFE. By E.

ROFIT-SHARING. By An

ENT. By Jane Addam

By Prof. J. L. M

ING. By Ra

ILLIAMS A

ookshops and

riber'

nges were made to

hasis changed to itali

ted. "but it is also

estle chang

tion errors w