The Norwegian Fjords

To approach the Norwegian coast at sunrise is an exceedingly enjoyable experience. Myriads of rock-islands in the sea and cloud-islands in the sky, their perspective terminating on the distant horizon in a peaked range of inland mountains, themselves like a cloud floating in golden vapour of dawn.

As the rising sun burns its path upwards, the sparkling sea reflects the glory of the sky in countless hues, and the magic of morning is felt in the air, cool and clear as crystal, as the steamer slows to await the pilot and the sea-birds wheel around.

Threading this intricate maze of islands, indications of human habitation soon become evident perched on grassy headlands or nestling in rocky creeks, and soon we are at the busy wharf of the first port of call, Stavanger, a bustling and clean little town, whose eleventh-century cathedral stands in dignified contrast to the brightly-painted wooden buildings at its feet.

Bergen

The navigation of the coast here is exceedingly intricate-rocky islands and skerries innumerable, and narrow winding channels; lighthouses, which are seen at every turn, and on both sides of the steamer's course, indicate the dangers and test the skill of the pilot and captain as the steamer proceeds in a north-westerly direction to Bergen, the metropolis of Western Norway.

Founded by King Olaf Kyrre in 1070, Bergen has witnessed most of the stirring events of the nation's life.

The population of the town is now 72,000. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Hanseatic League, which then monopolized the commerce of Northern Europe, held absolute sway here in Bergen, and the quaint Tydskebryggen (German quay) was their trading quarters. Near by the fortified tower of Rosenkranz was built to hold the Hanseatic quarter in check. It adjoins Haakonshal, the ancient palace of King Haakon Haakonson, who died in 1263.

This is the most ancient part of the town, although it is at present undergoing a change. Tydskebryggen is being modernized; its old-world character is fast disappearing.

Close by is St. Maria Kirken, a quaint twelfth-century church, formerly in possession of the Hanseatic League.

Triangelen (the fish-market quay) is interesting on Wednesday and Saturday mornings, where a fleet of small fishing-boats is moored alongside, lively and witty bargaining going on between buyer and seller which is highly amusing to witness. Bergen is in many respects a most interesting town, the ancient rubbing shoulders with the modern-the electric tram-car with the carrier's cart and "kariol"; the slender wood-framed, sack-covered booth with the gaily-painted kiosk; and the latest fashions from London and Paris with the divers picturesque costumes of fisherfolk and farmer, "striler" and "b?nder." Handsome stone-built shops stand cheek by jowl with the low red-tiled wooden ones, no two alike, in every variety of size and colour, relieving the monotony of the narrow and crooked streets.

The climate of Bergen is exceedingly mild and humid, not unlike that of the west coast of Scotland, and the numerous shops where umbrellas and rain-coats are displayed for sale give some indication of the prevailing weather, although I have known it to be fine there for several days together. But this not being in the nature of a guide-book-"Baedeker," "Beyer," and "Bennett" supply all the information one necessarily requires, and much more than I have space to admit here-we must pass on to the chief subject of the book, and enter the fjords, taking first the Hardanger Fjord.

This beautiful arm of the sea is second in regard to length, the Sogne Fjord being the longest; but what it lacks in this respect is more than balanced by the charm of the scenery and the greater area of land under cultivation-orchards gay with blossom, and well-trimmed farms with brightly-painted wooden houses, red, yellow, or white, perched high on the mountain's flank, or nestling nearer the fjord margin. This beautiful district of Hardanger has been the theme of poet and painter for generations.

The Hardanger costume

The Hardanger women are mostly of fair complexion, with blue eyes, and their costume is the most picturesque of any in the country. It consists of a bright red or green bodice, gay with beads in front, clean white linen sleeves, a large white head-covering ("skaut"), blue skirt trimmed with coloured braid, and a belt of beads with an old silver filigree clasp. The unmarried wear the hair hanging in two long plaits down the back, and for headgear a small white cotton shawl tied under the chin in place of the more elaborate "skaut" of the married.

It is an interesting sight to witness on Sunday mornings the well-filled boats coming from all parts of the fjord parish, men and girls alike rowing their graceful boats to church. On landing, they arrange each other's toilet on the beach, and when inside the sacred edifice, the women and girls sit on one side of the centre aisle and the men on the other.

The service is Lutheran, and there is much singing of hymns or "psalmer" in a leisurely way while sitting. The farmer's dog is also quite a "regular attender," but he is usually well-behaved, and no one appears to take the slightest notice of him unless he happens to pick a quarrel with another of his species.

Odde, Hardanger Fjord.

After, and sometimes during, Divine service small groups of farmers may be seen in the churchyard talking over the state of the market-of crops and cattle and other gossip-as each one repeatedly turns over the ample "quid" of tobacco in his mouth. It may be that they meet only once in three weeks, for many a parson has two or three churches to attend to. But the churches are, as a rule, well filled, no matter what happens to be the condition of the weather.

A peasant's homestead

In their homes these peasants live the "simple life" in square log houses of primitive form, finished on the outside with weather-boarding, turf laid on birchbark for roof-covering, on which grow masses of wild flowers, and one may even see a young birch-tree find root there and flourish.

The houses are painted on the outside, according to the taste of their owners, red, white, or yellow ochre, and these bright spots of colour add a cheerful note to the landscape.

Inside the house the log walls are allowed to season, and in time they acquire a rich tone of brown. There is generally one principal room on the ground floor, and in it the farmer, his family, and servants live and have their meals together in quite patriarchal fashion. In this room also are commonly found a couple of beds used by the farmer and his wife, the other members of the household having theirs up in the loft.

The cooking is done in the large common-room, as is also the carding, spinning, winding, and weaving of home-grown wool for the family in quite primitive fashion on ancient wheel and wooden hand-loom, this industry being their chief employment in the long winter nights.

Outside the farm-house there is always a store-room, called a "stabbur," standing separately. This building rests on short strong pillars of wood to keep out the rats and other intruders, and in it are stored dried meats, cheeses, milk, and other foodstuffs.

An additional outbuilding, called a "bui," is used for keeping the clothing, tapestries, blankets, etc.; also the daughter's wedding trousseau and old silver articles-heirlooms-including a bride's crown of silver gilt, all stored away in huge chests ("kists"). Here may also be found carefully treasured a variety of ancient carved and painted wooden bowls and tankards, out of use except at weddings and other state occasions.

Another detached outhouse, called an "ild-hus," is used for the baking of "flad br?d," a kind of rye cake, crisp and dry, and of the thickness of brown paper.

Yet another small outhouse is required for drying corn for brewing purposes, farmers being permitted to brew ale for their own consumption only, the sale of it not being lawful. Most households enjoy their home-brewed ale at Christmas-time, and they may even keep a small quantity over until Easter.

In addition to these small outbuildings there are, of course, the barn and cowhouse, with accommodation for horses, sheep, and pigs, forming altogether quite a little hamlet.

On the farms the womenfolk must look after the cattle, sheep, and goats, in addition to their ordinary household work, so they have not much time for idle recreation. The only important break in their humdrum lives, and to which they look forward with gladness, is the annual removal of the household, in the early summer, to the "s?ter," or mountain outfarm, a description of which, and the life there, I will deal with in a subsequent chapter.

The male members of the family are chiefly occupied with the raising and trading in domestic animals-horses, cattle, goats, sheep, etc.-in cutting faggots from their woods, and in the making of barrel-hoops for sale in the nearest towns. Boat-building also employs much of their time.

Horticulture-land tenure

Horticulture does not play any very prominent part in Norway, although, on most farms it is carried on to some extent, together with regular farming.

Among the more enlightened peasantry it is the rule to find outside the dwelling-house a kitchen garden where vegetables necessary to the family are raised, such as cabbages, turnips, carrots, onions, peas, and beans, and of fruit-trees we may find in many places pears, apples, cherries, currants, gooseberries, and strawberries.

On every hand the planting of fruit-trees is increasing, and in favourable years quite excellent results may be obtained, but the rough climate during the winter renders the fruit yield somewhat uncertain. It is only in a few districts around the Christiania Fjord and the Hardanger Fjord that horticulture is carried on to any greater extent than to satisfy the farmer's own requirements, although at the present time there is a strong movement for the promotion of horticulture, and many of the counties ("amt") have appointed gardeners, who travel round the district giving farmers free instruction in the laying out and management of gardens and orchards. Perhaps it may be as well to mention here that the Norwegian peasant has always enjoyed a freedom which to the same class in other countries has been denied.

In former centuries the feudal system was generally adopted in most European countries, but it has never existed in Norway.

The peasants have always maintained their freedom to acquire property anywhere within the limits of their own country; this circumstance, however, did not prevent an accumulation of the landed estates in a few hands, the result being that the peasant class to a very great extent became tenants and leaseholders, and less than one-half of the land of the country was utilized by freeholders.

As far back as 1685 a Royal Ordinance was issued by which a landowner who utilized more than one estate should pay double taxes on those in excess of one; as a consequence the farms were gradually sold to the peasants, a process which is going on to the present day.

This system of peasant proprietorship has worked remarkably well in the country, nine-tenths of the farmers being now freeholders; they have consequently a more substantial interest in the development of their farms and in the improvement of their land.

Boat-building

Boat-building is a lucrative employment, and this industry is carried on in many places on the Hardanger Fjord-chiefly at Jondal; also at Rosendal, on the ancient and beautifully situated barony of Rosenkrantz, at the foot of the mountain Melderskin.

The building of boats is the most ancient industry with which the Norwegians are acquainted.

Pliny the elder tells us that in the reign of Nero the Romans voyaged as far north as the Baltic, and Tacitus goes on to describe what lies beyond-that they knew, at any rate, the southern portion of the Scandinavian peninsula; and he speaks of their finding the country rich in arms and ships and men.

There are yet other proofs from a far earlier age in the rock-carvings or runes called "helleristninger," dating away back to an age not less remote than 500 years B.C. These are found, among other places, at Leirvaag farm in Askevold, on the south side of Atl?en, and at Bohusl?n in Southern Norway, where they are associated with many chambered tombs of the Stone Age.

These carvings represent ships, some of them being quaint representations of sea-fights, the boats being somewhat similar in appearance to those used by the Vikings of the ninth and tenth centuries of our era. Rude as these rock-carvings are, they give us some idea of the kind of vessels employed in that very remote age: they represent long row-boats with very high carved prows or sternposts, and are steered not by a rudder behind, but by an oar at the side, and from this practice is derived our word "starboard" or "steerboard," being the right-hand side of the vessel.

The Vikings used also a square sail, which could be hoisted when required. This they had learnt indirectly from the Romans.

The traveller among the fjords of Norway may, to this day, see those heavy boats with high prows and square sails, which have an indescribable air of antiquity about their build, contrasting quaintly with more modern-built craft of coasting vessels and fishing-smacks.

Although this ancient type of boat is fast dying out, the traveller will yet find a number of them in Nordland, and these are still more like the Viking ships of old, having also high pointed sterns.

These old-fashioned boats are a link between us and the remotest past of Scandinavia, of the early period of the rock carvings, and of the romantic period of the Vikings.

The boats built in Hardanger differ in form from those of the Sogne Fjord and Nordland, as the traveller will note as he proceeds northwards, the Hardanger type being of light and elegant construction, and drawing less water than those to which we are accustomed.

Every peasant and cotter has his own boat or boats, and these may be seen everywhere along the fjord, either in use on the water, or pulled up on the strand, and, where there is found a convenient landing-place, log-built boathouses are erected.

Norwegians are fond of gay colours, as evidenced in the painting of their houses and boats. Many farmers build their own boats out of wood grown on their own farms, and some build to sell again. The cost of a four-oared boat is about twenty-five kroner (twenty-eight shillings), a six-oared fifty kroner, and an eight-oared boat seventy kroner.

Staple food of peasants

As fish plays an important part in the diet of the peasants, the boats are greatly in use. The fjords being great arms of the sea, most kinds of sea-fish are caught therein, sometimes in very large quantities, herring being often in such densely-packed masses that quite a number of fishermen use large wooden shovels to transfer them to their boats, returning repeatedly to the harvest until the mass has dispersed.

At such times these fish are placed in barrels and salted, being either kept for winter use at home or shipped to the nearest seaport town.

Fish and oatmeal porridge-"havregr?d"-have formed from the earliest times the staple food of the Norwegians, as we learn from the sagas, and in "Hārbar?sljò?," in the "S?mundar Edda":

"àt ek i hvìld

a?r ek heiman fòr

sildr ok hafra."

"F?r jeg reiste hjemme fra, aad jeg i fred sild og havre," which, translated, reads, "Before I left my home, ate I in peace fish and oatmeal."

[Illustration: God?sund (missing from book)]

The peasant's ordinary routine for meals is commonly as follows: At 6 a.m., oatmeal cake or potato cake and buttermilk; at 8 a.m.-the chief meal of the day-is served fish, and boiled, salted, or dried mutton with potatoes; at 12 mid-day, oatmeal porridge and buttermilk; at 4 p.m., dried, smoked, or salted fish with potatoes and buttermilk; at 8 p.m., oatmeal porridge and milk.

This primitive food is still the daily custom of the peasant's household, although in some places coffee is used after the meals, and a very poorly-baked brown bread of barley or rye, occasionally mixed with oats; but rarely do they eat wheaten bread.

Much has been written by Norwegian authors with reference to the lack of cleanliness in the peasants' homes, but since so many foreign travellers in later years have visited the country, there has been a very considerable improvement in this respect.

The real cause of untidiness was that the women had really too much to do in looking after the cattle and farms, which took up the principal part of their time. Thus the ordinary household duties-the care of the children, cooking, etc.-were to some extent neglected.

This stigma can no longer be applied, as, by their own industry and thrift, the peasants mostly are now in a more prosperous condition. They are thus able to afford more assistance on the farms, and their wives are spared much of the degrading work which was their lot in the past. They have, consequently, more time for the care and education of the children, and their homes will now compare favourably in cleanliness with any of their class with which we are acquainted.

The "Gothenburg system"

The present prosperity of the Norwegian peasant may undoubtedly be traced to the working of the liquor law of 1871, popularly known as the "Gothenburg system," by which it is now made extremely difficult to obtain intoxicating liquor, especially spirits.

The Norwegian nation may now take premier place among nations with regard to sobriety. Norway, however, has not always taken up such a favourable position. During the years 1830-1840 we find the country ravaged by the "spirits plague," with its attendant sad results, moral, economic, and sanitary. By a law of 1810, anyone was allowed to distil spirits from his own produce. This naturally resulted in an alarming increase in the consumption of alcohol.

In the "forties" legislation took energetic measures against this, being at the same time strongly supported by the voluntary abstinence movement. The manufacture of spirits was only permitted when it was done wholesale, and was, at the same time, restricted to a limited number of distilleries. No one was allowed to retail spirits without a licence from the Local Board, who had also "local option" in the matter, sale of spirits being forbidden on Sundays and holy days, and on the afternoon preceding these. A heavy tax was levied both on the home production and on retail sale.

The beneficial consequences of this wise legislation were soon apparent. The number of bars decreased rapidly through a breaking off of drinking habits, and a consequent decrease in the consumption of spirits was distinctly perceptible, as well as the increased prosperity and improved public health. The rural districts in particular were almost cleared of spirit-selling, which was now restricted to the towns.

By the law of 1871 the Local Boards in the towns were allowed to make over their retail rights to philanthropic companies-"samlag"-which, instead of seeking to make the largest circle of customers, made it their aim to supervise and restrict the drinking of spirits, and whose net profits from the business should be devoted to "objects of public utility"-in other words, it was the introduction of the "Gothenburg system."

This system is also in force in Finland and in Sweden, but the Norwegian differs from the Finnish and Swedish in several points, especially in the fact that the profits do not, as in the neighbouring kingdom, go to the municipal funds. Norway does not, therefore, tempt the municipalities to improve the state of its finances by an increased trade in spirits.

Finally, by a law of July 27, 1894, all men and women over twenty-five years of age were allowed to decide by voting whether there should be any sale of spirits in their town for the following five years. As a result of this there has been prohibition of late years in a number of towns. For the whole country there is now only one "samlag" to every 10,000 inhabitants.

It thus follows that the many millions of kroner saved annually in households by the reduced consumption of intoxicating liquors have contributed greatly to raise the economic well-being of the nation, and it has been said, with reason, that the Norwegians have educated themselves to abstinence and sobriety.

Thus, on every hand we see evidences of this wise legislation in the enlarged and modernized farms, increased acreage of land under cultivation, the scientific planting of fruit-trees, and the more general use of modern implements of husbandry.