What Nietzsche Taught

es I

hts. His serious illness at the time made it impossible for him to attempt any large and co-ordinated philosophical task which would have required sustained thinking and continual physical labour, and the detached manner of writing employed by the French thinkers fitted in with the intermittent manner in which he was necessitated to work.

agedy. In his research he passed over many of the lesser philological discussions which were then occupying the minds of his academic confrères, and, mild as was this first published work of his, he suddenly found himself the centre of a discussion which augured ill for his future at the University of B

actual culture in the educational institutions of modern Germany, holding that true culture is only for the higher type of man. He made a plea for an institution where genuine culture, founded on the ideals of ancient Greece, would be harboured for the few who would devote their lives to it. Here unquestionably was th

ietzsche's ideal of woman; "On Music and Words" (1871), an analysis of the origins of music and language and a statement of the functions of each; "Homer's Contest" (1872), a comparison of the ancient and modern individualistic strife, in which was pointed out the necessity of competition in any successful commonwealth; "The Relation of Schopenhauer's Philosophy to a German Culture" (1872), a gay attack upon certain phases of German philistinism, with the suggestion that Scho

fficiently inflaming the popular mind to secure for himself a wide and ardent following.[Pg 48] Nietzsche, angered by the effect that Strauss's sophistries had upon the German mind, undertook to answer them and show up their spuriousness. In the essay on Richard Wagner, Nietzsche praised the composer in no uncertain terms, hailing him a

undation a profound knowledge of the causes of history. Also in this essay he made a plea for the individualistic interpretation of history, arguing that the events founded on the activities of majorities are useless to a true understanding of the fundamentals of racial development. Here again we encounter the foreshadowing of th

end of the volume entitled "The Case of Wagner." "We Philologists" is a protest against the manner in which classical culture was promulgated in the universities. It offers a stinging criticism of those German professors, the philologists, to whom was entrusted the duty of disseminating Greek cultural ideals, and in addition presents a concise outline of what genuine Hellenic culture should consist

onably begun to take definite form. Already there had been attempts at idealistic and moralistic valuations. There had also been a considerable amount of that preliminary analysis which was to form a foundation for the destructive and constructive thoughts of later years. In these e

ned in this work. It was a departure, not only in thought but also in manner, from all else he had written. The conventional essay form had been set aside for an aphoristic style. Here we find a series of paragraphs varying in length from a few lines to a page or more, each dealing with a separate and syllogistically detached id

an takes in a region he knows to be full of quicksands. In this regard it is interesting to note how a certain insecurity at the beginning of the work, which manifests itself in ultra-obscure passages, later gives way to a clarity and humour indicative of almost wanton temerity. In thi

y, the idol-smasher, the pessimist, the devastator. One by one the doctrines and tenets, strengthened by the accumulative acceptance of centuries, go down before his bludgeon. Piece by piece the universe of reality is neutralised by his analyses. Every human transaction, every phase of human hope and aspiration, is

he superficial manifestations of existence and given him that insight into the undercurrents of causation which was later[Pg 52] to inspire him in his work. For this reason we are more conscious of the man than of the philosopher when reading the series of aphorisms which constitute the main body of this document. "Human, All-Too-Human" is in the main an inquiry into the fundamental reasons for human conduct. Nietzsche devotes his efforts to showing that ideals, when pushed to their final analysis, reveal a basis in human need. Esp

t is an attempt to hinder and retard the development of the individual. It must not be thought that Nietzsche's arrival at this conclusion is a direct and simple affair based on superficial observation. Nor is it in itself the end for which he strives. To the contrary, the conclusion is stated mainly by inference. The work he lays out for himself is one of analysis, and under his critical scalpel fall rel

acute analysis. There are passages of startling poetry interpolated between paragraphs of cynical and destructive research. Nietzsche reveals himself as a scholar, the philologist, the historian and the scientist, as well as the thinker. The amount of general knowledge he displays in nearly every line of human endeavour is astonishing. In his most elaborate

ctual aristocracy which will permit of the highest development; of the individual. Evolution beyond the present is mentioned but indirectly. The future, to this destructive Nietzsche, is non-existent. His eyes are continually turned toward the past and they shift no further than the present. Only through implication is the Hellenic ideal voiced, and then it is with a certain degree of speculation as to its efficacy in meeting the demands of the modern m

ollowing book, "The Dawn of Day," comes the birth of his philosophy; it is the first real battle in his righteous warfare, the first great bla

fallen tree. Herein has lain my chief difficulty. I have been able to show only sections of the destruction of human values which Nietzsche here accomplishes. Furthermore, it has been impossible to give any very adequate idea of the vast amount of brilliant criticism of men and art

ortune Spe

M "HUMAN, AL

d in pre-historic times, long before those four t

no eternal facts, as there are l

ntiment likewise belong only to the surface of things, while man willingly b

incomprehensible to us; it would be a thing of negative qualities. Were the existence of such a world ever so well proved

existence of the awakenings of logic in it; the belief in unconditioned[Pg 56] substances an

for instance, no longer believes in guardian angels or in original sin, and has also ceased to talk of the salvation of his soul,-if he

nd Pessimism!... We must get rid of both the calumniat

t he has put forth such blossoms as religions and arts.

inference from the ability to live to its suitability; from its suitability to its rightfulness. Then: an opinion

t; it is only possible through the fact that sympathy for the general life a

ves things of the greatest suitableness without intending to do so, so also true science, as the imitator of nature in idea

g

urious consequences which result for the community. But soon the origin of these distinctions is forgotten, and it is d

ny one prefers vengeance to justice he is moral according to the standard

unted for by us as the grades of earlier c

feel it, for the unfortunate are so stupid that to them th

the thirst for self-g

may produce great effects. For men believe in the truth o

ecause some one is truthful and honest t

life?... Because ... the path of compulsion an

but no sentiments, for th

lies in the fact that we t

that of[Pg 58] contributing its own little fag

about it, as if it were something very much higher than the latter? Is it not visibly more stup

st of all evils, because it pro

es extreme actions to vanity, average on

and for suicide, and thus it ingratiates itself

ns so great as it appears.... One unconsciously takes it for granted that doer and sufferer think and feel

, it will arise again

s has been shed over descriptions of noble and unselfish deeds! This charm of life w

tual custom, has forgotten the original[Pg 59] purpose of so-called just and reasonable actions, and particularly because for hundreds of years children have been taught to admir

feel ourselves at ease and see others at ease. Similar manifestations of pleasure awaken the idea of the same sensations, the feeling of being like something; a like effect is produced by common sufferings, the same bad weather, dangers

uffering of others in itself,

then almost all manifestations of the so-ca

s of henceforth warning away from certain actions; equally so, he who is rewa

s, but at most of degree. Good actions are sublimated evil one

g

n the representations of sorcer

ing of absolute depravity it suddenly threw the light of divine mercy, so that the surprised man, dazzled

gious; this is comprehensible and excusable, only they have no right to demand re

s done only for others and witho

art of himself as a God, and is obliged, the

We long to be beautiful, we fancy it must bring mu

ul side by side with the art o

s, but not scientific men. In reality, however, the former valuation a

nly his own intellect, but al

profession should justly be rega

g 61] of knowledge when both think only of the matter un

has a weakenin

rs; for they meet the taste of readers o

hly desired, instigated, or pushed aside by new matter. The unceasing desire to create is vulgar, and betrays envy, jealousy, and ambition. If a man is someth

ess. Every wholesale progress must be preceded by a partial weakening. The s

the possession of it, not the impulse under which

omprehension of different creeds and could take his choice; he is an Englishman, not because he decided for England, but he found Christia

s made[Pg 62] instinct, leads to what is

is not without value in the general summing-up of life. The wise man must oppose those digressive wishes of unintelligent goodness, because he has an interest in the continuance of his type an

ngs: first, how much energy is inherited? secondly, by what means can new energy be aroused? thirdly, how can the individual be adapted to so many and manifold claims of culture without being disquieted

, without confusion, divisible, exclusive; this is a necessity of health. In one part lies the source of strength, in the other lies the regulator; it must be he

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relatives die and we do not dream about them.... This species of superstition is found again in a refined form in historians and delineators o

embers recognise and acknowledge each other, whatever public opinion and the verdicts of review and newspaper writers who influence the masses may circulate in favour of or against them. Mental superiority, which formerly divided and embitte

made lies in their acquisition of t

ess depend far less on inherited talents than o

distance and begins his race with other modern men under unfavourable conditions; he apparently loses time and space. But[Pg 64] because he stays in those domains where ardour and energy are liberated a

and comfort in life should always

still, into slaves and freemen; for whoever has not

neighbourhood of all the virtues; the idle man is still a better man than the active. You do n

h opinions are possible, because he himself is a peculiar, unique thing, which assu

any compulsion lose all inclination for faults and vices; he wil

wise you cannot be wise. But you must be able to see beyond them, to outg

down to ourselves (by belittling, disregarding, and tripping up), or ourselves and

of a virtue until we perceive that it is

le; being alone implants presumption in us. The young are pretentious, for they associat

er course for defence; for the most appropriate argument for a stupid brain is the clenched fist. But because, as has been said

of humanity than the perfect man, a

her: it determines his attitude towards woman as a whole, whether to

who are particularly successful. As a rule mother

ve together, happy marriages

xclusively. They would gladly keep him under lock and key, if their vanity did not for

g

rovision in life, and whose cunning is further prompted by worldly mothers, ha

not give our classical e

se who know how to put a thing properly: women have intelligence, men have character and passion. This does not contradict the fact that men actually achieve so much more with their intelligence: they have deeper and more powerful impulses; and it is these which carry their understanding (in itself something passive) to such an extent. Women are often silently surprised at the great resp

anity and reverence are greater than feminine wisdom; for women have known how to secure for themselves by their subordination the greatest advantage, in fact, the upper hand. Even the care of children may originally have been used by the wisdom of women as an excuse for wi

not necessary, institution for the thirties; for later life it is of

e of the sensual, so to speak, as a rare and occasional means to a higher purpose, will, it is to be feared, probably need a natural auxiliary, namely, concubinage. For if, on the grounds of his health, the wife is also to serve, for the sole satisfaction o

ion with women and friends; and sometimes we

g

their husbands; they want to cheat them out of their futur

the ocean of the future. But it seems equally senseless if a man who has chosen for his mission the widest knowledge and estimation of universal existence, burdens himself with personal considerations of a family, with the support, protection, and care of w

f the working class, and that of the leisured class who are capable of true leisure; or, m

t may be said that it barbarises in both its above-named results, and thereby makes more natural; it is the

who for centuries have been oppressed and downtrodden, there is no problem of right involved[Pg 69] (notwithstanding the ridiculous, eff

sible; but, as has been said, only within the ranks of the governing class, which in this case practises justice with sacrifices and abnegations. On the other hand, to demand equality of rights, as do the Socialists of the subje

anything with so unrighteous a basis, they only perceive something isolated. The entire past of ancient civilisation is built up on violence, slavery, deception, and error; we, howeve

emselves thereby and those who seek something for their children and grandchildren. The latter ar

g

a ludicrous extent by every one wishing for the abolition of slavery and utterly abhorring to put any one into this position.... We protest in the name of the "dignity

icism does not penetrate an innocent corruption grows up like

State will inevitably lose its old veil of Isis, and will no longer arouse veneration. The sovereignty of the people, looked at closely, serves also to

of the Sicilian tyrant; it desires (and under certain circumstances furthers) the C?sarian despotism of this century, because, as has been said, it would like to become its heir. But even this inheritance would not suffice for its objects, it requires the most submissive prostration of all citizens before the absolute State, such as has never yet been realised, and as it can no longer even count upon the old religious piety towards the State, but must rather strive involuntarily and continuously for the abolition thereof,-because it strives for the abolition of all existing States,-it can only hope for existence

to expect very much (or even, much only) from hum

beautiful women and the engagement of the best teachers; it allows a man cleanliness, t

n-private laz

dangerous enemies of

g

o argument against its existence, bu

have a feeble conscience for common bourgeois rect

ed is the greatest o

er he surpasses all the anim

g is not usually our own, but only the current opinion belonging to our cast

rights than he who, in the depths of h

s had formed our character and given it support and stability, whereas exactly the contrary has taken place. Our thoughts and judgments are, appar

avism; for the way in which he behaves to people was right and suitable only for an age of club-law; he is an atavist. The man of a different character,[Pg 73] rich in sympathy, winning friends everywhere, finding all that is growing

faith in whose net he was first caught, is, under all circumstances, just on a

ndolence of intellect allows those

time, regard himself otherwise than as a wanderer on the face of the earth-and

degrees, we generally discover, from the undisguised joy of our pupil, how greatly men prefer the uncertainty o

, however much they comport themselves as the judges and not the accused: because they are involuntar

he doubt of all truths in which o

g

ed from others by their disbelief in the m

consider whether in every action that is done with deliberatio

at every failure conscience finds an excuse and an encouragement in itself. Th

eir penchant is noticed. Besides, they are generally conscious of being impotent in action, for in

accuses his fate or himself. All complaint is accusation, all self-congratulation

lean conditions, and, if necessary, how to

red to the temporary." The conclusion drawn is that the permanent interest of the community is unconditionally to be set above the temporary interes

, considerations of health, reputation, or glory, are the impelling motives. These motives are styled ignoble and selfish. Very well, but if they stimulate

es, towards the "beautiful soul" of the work of art, is often only

ything that is ugly-the painful, terrible, and disgusting elements which in spite of every effort will always break out afresh in accordance with the very origin of human nature. Art has to perform this duty especially in regard to the passions and spiritual agonies and anxieties, and to cause the significant factor to shine through unavoidable or unconquerable ugli

deformities, and extravagances, so that their more powerful, easily all-too-powerful influenc

he old, well-known thing, which is seen and overlooked by every one, as something new. The

his own form excites imitation and gradually cre

e after his fashion, by taking on his own shoulders a portion of that burden of p

s. We need history, for the past continues to flow through us in a hundred channels. We ourselv

rian nations ... Christi

real mountains, although I do not know who assumed that it

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weave their experience into their life and carry it with them henceforth. Lastly, there are some men of the highest strength who, as soon as they have returned home, must finally and necessarily work out in their lives and productions all the things seen that they have experi

distinctions of persons, may arise as much from a profound con

artists entertain a feeling that is com

e out of love for a man and his intellect, and that nevertheless in the new domain, which was previously foreig

sk of fashioning humanity, by man she shows what she has had o

only: but when a man finds weakness, need of help, and high spirits united in the same creature, he suffers a sort of ov

ongs to youth, clarity of

other words, to live in moderation and contentment, to prevent as far as possible all lavish disp

e of the leisure which his possessions might secure to him, will continue to strive after more property.... It excites envy in the poor a

eel freer and more independent; one step farther, and

or keeping the people independent, in fear and obedience:

ppears to us good, and above all not a day earl

g

have no conception of how one could be ashamed of being pleased ther

we perhaps discover in the end, after the first shock, that we are richer than before. For now we know for the first time what is so peculiarly ours t

you try to establish the exce

ays hateful," the most childish in the still more famous saying, "Love thy neighbour as thy

o heavy? Then you must increase

fact that that bit of the world which we know-I mean our human reason-is none too reasonable. And if t

tance, we say "we only eat to live"-an abominable lie, like that which speaks of the procreation[Pg 80] of children as the rea

ll is an invention of t

his ape, as a perpetual source of amusement in

ngs of the same mould, save that the latter attains his ends by other means than the former-that is to say

the gnawing of a dog at a ston

aditions, traditions to mo

the community on a certain plane and in a certain degree of benevolence. Its motives are fear and hope, and these in a more

e Decalogue, are only suited to ages

just as we need to explain why the unselfish man, who is

2

een demanded of us, without reason, in the days of[Pg 81] o

preconceived j

t struggle. The combat is a fantasy, but so is the resignation in fate-all these fantasies are included in fate.-The fear felt by most people of the doctrine that denies the freedom of the will is a fear of the fatalism of the Turk. They imagine that man will become weakly resigned and will stand before the future with folded hands, because he cannot alter anything of the future. Or that he will give a free rein to his caprices, because the predestined cannot be made wor

ccounted the most noble virtue, in the next justice,

erywhere in nature (for instance, "hot and cold"), where

sible either to fix or alter the will of the godhead, and the devotee would have to know best himself what he needs and sho

hstone for the gold

t been wafted to the men of our day! Indeed, we may promise ourselves this joy, nay summon and conjure it up as a necessary thing, so long as the development of human reason does not stand still. Some day we shall no longer be reconciled to the logical sin that lurks in all wrath and punishment, whether exercised by the individual or by society-some day, when head and heart have learnt to live as near

g

n irrational death, in which the pitiable substance of the

the more ready we are to sacrifice life

the great may hope to rob and the

311

dicable trait of human nature, older and more primi

e tribe of beggars would long since have died of starva

alid rights, because their rights are a kind of power, and they are too lazy or too cowardly to exerci

wardly as a woman," say the men. Stup

reat statesmen, is an improvisa

f nor its neighbour, and, partly from hate, partly from fear, refuses to lay down its weapons. Better to perish than to hate and fear, and[Pg 84] tw

sudden acquisition of wealth. Accordingly, we should take all the branches of transport and trade which favour the accumulation of large fortunes-especially, therefore, the money market

t, inventiveness or laziness, honesty or make-believe bestowed upon it, the valuation can never be a ju

isation of society. We almost have the war now, and in any case the expense of maintaining peace, of concluding treaties and

to their hands, through great majorities in their Parliaments, they will attack with progressive taxation the whole dominant system of capitalists, me

hitherto upon the most distant, undetermined, and cloudy foundation. Second Principle: to establish the rank of the neare

mixed with every day life-and now, you singular druggist-souls, you have made of dea

so, forget ourselves: we ourselves

so certain of them as all that. But we might let ourselves be b

But now he still suffers from having carried his chains so long, from having been so long without pure air and free movement-these chains, however, are, as I repeat again and again, the ponderous and s