The Life-Story of Insects

issolution and rebuilding of tissues, that varies in its completeness in members of different orders. It is now advisable to consider the vari

ir main structural features, while in others there is great variety of larval form within the order. For example, the caterpillars of all Lepidoptera are fundamentally much alike, while t

lpha) with its larva, b. Magni

pus). Magnified 6 times. After Westwo

adult there is a shin followed by five, four, or at least three distinct tarsal segments. The foot of an adult beetle bears two claws at its tip, while the larval foot in the great majority of families has only one claw. In one section of the order, however, the Adephaga comprising the predaceous terrestrial and aquatic beetles, the larval foot has, like that of the adult, two claws. Some adephagous larvae, notably those of the large carnivorous water-beetles (Dyticus), often destructive to tadpoles and young fish, have completely armoured bodies as well as long jointed legs. More commonly, as with most of the well-known Ground-beetles (Carabidae), the cuticle is less consistently hard, firm sclerites segmentally arranged alternating with considerable tracts of cuticle which remain feebly chitinised and flexible. Most of the adephagous larvae (fig. 13) have a pair of stiff processes on the ninth abdominal segment, and the insect, from its general likeness to a bristle-tail of the genus Campodea, is often called a campodeiform larva (Brauer, 1869). From such as these, a series of forms can be traced among larvae of beetles, showing an increasing divergence from the imago. The we

ssima) and its larva (b). Magnified 5 times. Af

es chrysocephala) magnified 5 times,

d shortening of the legs and reduction in the size of the head accompany the whitening and softening of the cuticle. This shortening of the legs is still mo

; b, larva; c, pupa. Magnified 7 times. Afte

beneath the bark of trees, have no legs at all, the place of these limbs being indicated only by tiny tubercles on the thoracic segments. Such larvae as these latter are examples of the type called e

minute armoured larva, with long feelers, legs, and cerci, whose task is, for example, to seize hold of a bee in order that the latter may carry it, an uninvited guest, to her nest. Safely within the nest, the little 'triungulin' beetle-grub moults; the second instar has a soft cuticle and relatively shorter legs, which, as the larva, now living as a cuckoo-parasite, proceeds to gorge itself with honey, soon appear still further abbreviated. Later comes a st

h similar larvae among the Coleoptera. Such are the 'Ant-lions,' larvae of the exotic lacewing flies, which hunt small insects, digging a sandy pit for their unwary steps in the case of the best-known members of the group, some of which are found as far north as Paris. In our own islands the 'Aphis-lions,' larvae of Hemerobius and Chrysopa, prowl on plants infested with 'green-fly' which t

ptera, and usual among the saw-flies, which belong to the Hymenoptera. The vast majority of caterpillars feed on the leaves of plants and their long worm-like bodies with the series of paired pro-legs, are excellently adapted for their habit of clinging to twigs, and crawling along shoots or the edge

ern, which assist the caterpillar in clinging to its food-plant. The saw-fly caterpillar, on the other hand, may have as many as eight pairs of pro-legs, the series beginning on the second abdominal segment; here, however, the pro-legs have no hooklets. Among the Lepidoptera, we notice a reduction in the number of pro-legs in the 'looper' caterpillars of Geometrid m

ia fuliginosa); a, caterpillar; b, coco

usly adorned, and furnish examples of what is known as 'warning coloration,' on the supposition that the gaudy aspect of such insects serves as an advertisement that they are not fit to eat, and that birds and other possible devourers thus learn to leave them alone. On the other hand, smooth caterpillars which are readily eaten by birds are usually 'protectively' coloured, so as to resemble their surroundings and remain hidden except to careful seekers. Many such caterpillars are green, the upper surface, which is naturally exposed to the light, being darker than the lower which is in shadow. When the caterpillar is large, the green area is often broken up by pale lines, longitudinal as on the larvae of many Owl Moths (Noctuidae) or oblique, as on the great caterpillars of most Hawk Moths (Sphingidae). Such an arrangement tends to make the insect less easily seen than were it to display a continuous area of the same

arable to the hairs of mammals, being in truth, modifi

caterpillars of the Bell Moths (Tortricidae) roll leaves, fastening the edges together with silk, and thus make for themselves a shelter; or they bore their way into seeds or fruits, like the larva of the Codling Moth that is the cause of 'worm-eaten' apples, too well-known to orchard-keepers. Very many small caterpillars mine between the two skins of a leaf, eating out the soft green tissue, and g

l-appendages; by means of the latter it anchors itself to the extremity of its curious 'house.' It is of interest to note that in the earlier stages of some caddises lately described and figured by A. J. Siltala (1907), the legs are relatively very long, and the larva is quite campodeiform in aspect. Some of these caddis-grubs retain the campodeiform condition and do not shelter permanently in cas

materials for their houses is produced from spinning-glan

cts, the Hymenoptera and the Diptera. Among the Hymenoptera this is indeed the predominant larval type. We have just seen that a caterpillar is the usual form of larva among the saw-flies, but in all other families of the Hymenoptera we find the legless grub. A grub of this order may usually be distinguished from the larva of a weevil or other beetle, by its relatively smaller head and smoother, less wrinkled cuticle; it strikes the observer as a feebler, more helpless creature than a beetle-grub. And it is of interest to note that this so

e-bee (Apis mellifica). co, cocoon; sp, spiracles; ce, eye; an, feel

-laying is usually in itself a provision for the offspring. Gall-flies pierce plant-tissues within which their grubs find shelter and food, the plant responding to the irritation due to the presence of the larva by forming a characteristic growth, the gall, pathological but often regular and shapely, in whose hollow chamber the grub lives and eats. Ichneumon-flies and their allies pierce the skin of caterpillars and other insect-larvae, laying their eggs within the victims' bodies, which their grubs proceed to devour internally. Some very small members of these families are content to lay their eggs within the eggs of larger insects, thus

their eggs to furnish a food-supply for the newly-hatched young. The social wasps and many ants sting and kill flies and other insects, which they break up so as to feed their grubs within the nest. It is well known that the labour of tending the larvae in these insect societies is performed for the most part not by the moth

w showing anchor process (a), and spiracles projecting at sides.

the hymenopterous family Cynipidae. Many plant-galls are due, however, to the presence of grubs of tiny dipterous insects, the Cecidomyidae or Gall-midges. A cecid grub (fig. 19) has an elongate body with flexible, wrinkled cuticle, tapering somewhat at the two ends. The head, if rather narrow, is distinct, and beneath the prothorax is a characteristic sclerite known as the 'anchor process' or 'breast bone.' Along either side of the body is a series of paired spiracles, each usually situated at the tip of a little tubular outgrowth of the cuticle; the hindmost spiracles are often larger than the others. These little grubs live in family communities, their presence leading to some deformation of the plant that serves to shelter them. A shrivelled fruit or an arrested and swollen shoot, such as may be due respectively to the Pear-midge (Diplosis pyrivora) or the Osier-midge (Rhabdophaga heterobia), is a frequent result of the irritation set up by these little grubs. In a larva of the crane

s are derived from the manner in which the larval or pupal cut

ea), a, female; b, larva ('leathe

racle; c, feeler; d, hind-region with posterior spiracles; e, f, head-region with mouth-hooks; g, h

are the prelude to one of the most marvellous of all insect life-stories. The fly-with its large globular head, bearing the extensive compound eyes, the highly modified feelers with their exquisitely feathered slender sensory tips, and the complex suctorial jaws; with its compact thorax bearing the glassy fore-wings alone used for flight, though the hi

acle, a curious branching or fan-like outgrowth (fig. 21 b), with a variable number of tiny openings which are probably of little use for the admission of air to the tubes. In many maggots the mouth-hooks and the front spiracles become more and more complex in form in the successive instars. The cuticle, white and smooth to the unaided eye, is seen on microscopic study to be set with rows of tiny spines which assist the maggot's movemen

which affords shelter as well as food. The Bluebottle maggot burrows into flesh, that of the House-fly into horse-dung or vegetable refuse. The maggot of the Cabbage-fly eats its way into the roots of cruciferous plants, that of the Mangel-fly works out

ll patch of the mucous coat of that organ. The maggot is relatively short and stout, with rows of strong spicules surrounding the segments, and with spiracles capable of withdrawal through a cup-like inpushing of the tail-region of the body, so that the parasite is preserved from drowning when the host drinks water. The young maggot of Hypoderma (fig. 22 e) is elongate and slender, spends its first two stages burrowing in the gullet wall and then wandering through the dorsal tissues of its host; ultimately it arrives beneath the skin of the back and assu

he Hover-flies (Syrphus). These, unlike most of their allies, live e

sal view; c, egg; d, empty puparium, ventral view; e, young maggot from gullet, ventral view.

in hue, and the maggot, despite its want of definite head and sense organs, moves actively and purpo

the tail-spiracles situated at the end of a prominent tubular process. Among the best-known of syrphid flies are the drone-flies (Eristalis), often seen hovering over flowers, and presenting a curious likeness to hairy bees. The larva of Eristalis is one of the most remarkable in the whole order, the 'Rat-tailed maggot' found in the stagnant water of ditches and pools. It has a cylindrical body with the hinder end drawn out into a long telescopic tube, a more slender terminal section be

m, from which the larva hangs. Or having accumulated a supply of air, it can disengage itself from the surface-film and dive through the water, its tracheal system safely closed. Another mode of breathing is found in the 'Blood-worms' and allied larvae of the Harlequin-midges (Chironomidae) whose transformations are described in detail by Miall and Hammond (1900). These larvae have two pairs of cylindrical, spine-bearing pro-legs-one on the prothorax and the other on the hindmost abdo

Frontisp

body is shaped like a flask swollen slightly at the hinder end and possesses a median pro-leg just behind the head, also another at the tail, which serves to attach the larva to a stone or to the leaf of an aquatic plant. The head has, in addition to feelers and jaws, a pair of processes with wonderful fringes which by

e suited to various modes of life adopted by different insects. A survey of the multitudes of insect larvae-grubs, caterpillars, maggots-living on land, on plants, underground, in the water; feeding on leaves, in stems, on roots, on carrion, on refuse; b