A History of Roman Literature

3-12 B. C.-Pollio, 67 B. C.-5 A. D.-Messalla, 64 B. C.-8 A. D.-M?cenas, 70

rts, but he could no longer change the policy of the nation; the historian might search the records of the past and describe the deeds of those who were no longer living, but if he wrote of the history of his own times, he must have the fear of the master always before his eyes; the poet could sing of love and wine and nature without let or hindrance, but poems of national and political importance could hardly be written except by those in sympathy with the empire. The emperor might exert his influence to put down all literary expression not agreeable to h

the copy of it found inscribed upon the wall of the temple of Augustus and Rome at Ancyra (the Monumentum Ancyranum), containing in simple and dignified language the record of his life, his political measures, and his military activity, shows the good taste of the first Roman emperor, for he who had become the ruler of the civilized world was not led to praise himself or speak in extravagant terms of any of his deeds, but composed the record of his wonderful life in terms of simplicity so

tavia, the other in the temple of the Palatine Apollo, under the care of the learned Varro. Pollio was a soldier, statesman, and orator, but also wrote tragedies and a history of the years 60-42 B. C., in which he criticized boldly the statements of Julius C?sar, the adoptive father of Augustus. Pollio was the first to hold and encourage public and private recitations of new literary works. Mesalla. Less closely co

and winning personality made him of great service to Octavius in his negotiations with Antony and Sextus Pompey, and after the power of Augustus was established M?cenas was the close friend and constant adviser of the emperor. In spite of his fine literary taste, he was without talent as a writer, and his works, both prose and verse, were sev

oratory Virgil developed no taste. After the battle of Philippi (42 B. C.) the triumvirs recompensed their veterans by a distribution of farm lands, and Virgil's farm was given to a new owner. At that time Asinius Pollio, who had admired Virgil's poetry and had encouraged him to write the Bucolics or Eclogues, was governor of the region beyond the Po, and through his influence the poet was reinstated in his property. But in the following sum

vote three years to the final revision of his work, and then to give himself up to the study of philosophy. But at Athens he met with Augustus, who was on the point of returning to Rome from the East and invited him to join the imperial party. Virgil was already ill

nd to his friends and patrons, Pollio, Gallus, Varus, M?cenas, and Augustus. Pastoral poems, written for the cultivated circle of an imperial court, are necessarily artificial, and to this rule the Eclogues are no exception. Yet the charm of their diction, the polish of their verse, the genuine love of nature and appreciation of rural life which they display, have given these poems a well-deserved place among the most famous productions of Roman literature. In the Eclogues Virgil is, even more than in his other poems, dependent on Greek originals. Not only scattered lines, but whole passages are a

mposition, has the form of a dialogue between two herdsmen, Melib?us and Tityrus. In

in the shadow of t

ityrus, on th

music. We o

must shun the

thou, at ease

ng woods call A

lib?us! 'tis

oliday: for a

any a young la

altar. Thanks

eest them: than

ist upon my sh

represents Virgil himself, speaks of his

?us, I behel

ear twelve days

he my yet unan

ds, your kine, and

rld is to become better, until the golden age of peace and good-will among men shall come again. This poem was, curiously enough, long supposed to be an inspired prophecy of the coming

icily, a l

ire of shrubs a

eme? Then prince

last days that

ighty march

virgin, Saturn

eaven descends

-born babe-who

iron, bid

world-chaste

o reigns. And

ince, when he t

ward roll the

ut what prints ou

nations from

ss shall waken;

mingling, and

'er which his fathe

that of dialogue, with competitive songs by the herdsmen. The opening lines of t

ppose now two g

-blowing, as

re, where elm

s, meet it i

ad, or into sh

fancy-or (ma

See, here's a

flings her f

ills one-Amynta

thought to out-s

gin. If aught y

ndles, aught of

ill-temper,

le will watch t

sing the song

ech's bark I

I wrote. Hear

s vie

s will

e olive; as t

elds the lo

d, Amyntas yi

on of a poem on agriculture. This was a subject which Virgil was especially qualified to treat with success, and the poem, to which he devoted seven years, is the most perfect of his works. It is a very free imitation of the Works and Days of Hesiod, and contains many passages derived from Aratus and other Greek poets, but in its composition and its poetic beauty it is independent of all but Virgil's own genius. It is dedicated to M?cenas. The first book treats of the tillin

vening brings, a

uds, and also wi

nd is moved, of

ve thee signs.

lse? He even

seen and treas

s are swelling

ing Rome for

ness veiled hi

feared endless

nd the water

dogs and evi

w often did we

g furnace of

?tna o'er the

lls of flame an

through all t

ps with unused

many through t

was heard, an

ise appeared

pake (oh, horror!

d earth yawned

ept within the

orth from statues

e king of ri

woods along o

ields bore stable

n of the properties of different kinds of soil. Among its beautiful passages one is the p

rmers, if th

know! For whom t

from strife of

an easy li

e, near the beginning of the book, expresses the poet's love for his native Ma

ife be grante

Muses from A

; I first will

Idum?an p

ead will buil

ter, where th

ders slow with

h tender reeds

idst for me sh

temple. Then

lad in Tyria

eam a hundred fo

he mythical founder of bee culture, to his mother, the sea-nymph Cyrene. This includes an account of the struggle of Arist?us with the sea-god Proteus and the death of Eurydice, the wife of Orpheus. A tradition exists that the poem originally

h imitation that his work surpasses the Works and Days in every respect. In the ?neid the imitation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey is constantly evident, and certain passages are clearly derived from Euripides, Sophocles, and Apollonius of Rhodes; but the ?neid is by no means a mere imitation. In some respects it is far inferior to the Homeric poems. It lacks their simplicity, their rapidity of movement, and their fresh joyousness; it can not be compared with them in narrative power or brilliancy of imagery. In these qualities Homer is unapproachable. But as a national epic, as the expression in prophetic form of the national greatness and of the poet's deep-seated passion for his country's glory the ?neid had no prototype, as it has had no successor. Virgil is not Homer; he is reflective, filled with the deep thoughts that centuries of speculation h

s his home, so these books of the ?neid tell of the adventures of ?neas on his voyage from Troy to Italy, and more than one passage shows how constantly the Odyssey was in the poet's mind. The last six books tell of the struggles of ?neas and his follower

, when Juno causes the wind-god, ?olus, to rouse a storm. The Trojan vessels are driven on the rocks, and the sea is stirred to its low

ere his wor

urge, brings

swift Cym

om off the p

med, each dull

st shoals a pa

the ruffled w

he surface

dition oft

at town the

and stones

s weapons a

some man of

less virtue

y hist: his cl

wills, their

eased at o

y looking o

a range of

bids his ch

r ?neas. In the second book ?neas begins the story of his adventures with a superb account of the fall of Troy, his own valiant but ineffectual struggle against the Greeks, and his final flight. In the third book he continues his story to the time of his arrival at Carthage. The fourth book is devoted to the love and fate of Dido. ?neas and Dido, with their followers, go hunting in the forest; a storm arises, and the two, separated from the rest, take refuge in a cave, where only the woodland nymphs witness the u

world, ma

ate'er on ea

o, too, i

of the heart

e, tremen

s howled at

ends, and g

in dying D

at powers to i

and my pe

t be that wr

port and fl

ate of heaven

moveless pi

by a sava

rom his so

sue for a

slain befor

humbling pe

be his or l

fall in manh

tombless

on to heav

bation wi

, you throug

h deathless

r gift to D

eague 'twixt

ashes, scou

rsue the D

orrow, throu

ands can wie

th shore, figh

at are or e'

the fabled monsters of the lower regions, and the shades of many departed heroes. Then there pass before him the forms of those as yet unborn. This gives the poet an opportunity to praise the great men of Rome, among them Julius C?sar and Augustus. Here he sees the form of the young Marcellus, son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus. When this book was written, Marcellus had recently died in hi

wing that Virgil's technical ability increased as the poem drew toward its close, but many other passages show the lack of the final revision. To the Roman the ancient legends of the origin of the Roman power must have been of surpassing interest, but most modern readers remember, am

if aught my

l make your

the heart

tol abides

n of the ?

upon that

ther sits

be wondered at that throughout the Middle Ages Virgil was regarded as the impersonation of all that was great in poetry; nor is it strange that the poet whose verses breathe such an indescribable, sweet sadness, who sings in lofty, inspired language of that Roman greatness which was ever present to the medi?val imagination, who describes the

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