A History of Sanskrit Literature

of the

the Vedic hymns were composed in an ancient dialect and embodied a world of ideas far removed from that with which they had made themselves familiar. The interpretation of these hymns was therefore at the outset barred by almost insurmountable difficulties. Fortunately, however, a voluminous commentary on the Rigveda, which explains or paraphrases every word of its hymns, was found to exist. This was the work of the great Vedic scholar Sāya?a, who lived in the latter half of the fourteenth century A.D. at Vijayanagara ("City of Victory"), the ru

ad of the commentators. For the latter, though valuable guides towards the understanding of the later theological and ritual literature, with the notions and practice of which they were familiar, showed no continuity of tradition from the time of the poets; for the tradition supplied by them was solely that which was handed down among interpreters, and only began when the meaning of the hymns was no longer f

lf thinks it might mean "nose-born"! The gap between the poets and the early interpreters was indeed so great that one of Yāska's predecessors, named Kautsa, actually had the audacity to assert that the science of Vedic exposition was useless, as the Vedic hymns and formulas were obscure, unmeaning, or mutually contradictory. Such criticisms Yāska meets by replying that it was not the fault of the rafter if the blind man did not see it. Yāska himself interprets only a v

third as "belonging to a demon called ?arad." One of the defects of Sāya?a is, in fact, that he limits his view in most cases to the single verse he has before him. A detailed examination of his explanations, as well as those of Yāska, has shown that there is in the Rigveda a large number of the most difficult words, about the proper sense of which neither scholar had any certain information from either tradition or etymology. We are therefore justified in saying about them that there is in the hymns no unusual or difficult word or obscure text in regard to which the authority of the commentators should be received as final, unless it is supported by probability, by the context, or by parallel passages. Thus no translation of the Rigveda

essed the view that a qualified European is better able to arrive at the true meaning of the Rigveda than a Brahman interpreter. The judgment of the former is unfettered by theological bias; he possesses the historical faculty, and he has also a far wider intellectual horizon, equipped as he is with all the resources of scientific scholarship. Roth therefore set himself to compare carefully all passages parallel in form and matter, with due regard to considerations of context, grammar, and e

ss already made in solving many important problems presented by Vedic literature has been surprising, when we consider the shortness of the time and the fewness of the labourers, of whom only two or three have been natives of this country. As a general result, the historical sense has succeeded in grasping the spirit of Indian antiquity, long obscured by native misinterpretation. Much, of course, still remains to be done by future generations of scholars, especially in detailed and minute investigation. This could not be otherwise when we remember that Vedic researc

a body of skilfully composed hymns, produced by a sacerdotal class and meant to accompany the Soma oblation and the fire sacrifice of melted butter, which were offered according to a ritual by no means so simple as was at one time supposed, though undoubtedly much simpler than the elaborate system of the Brāhma?a period. Its poetry is consequently marred by frequent references to the sacrifice, especially when the two great ritual deities, Agni and Soma, are the objects of praise. At the same time it is on the whole much more natural than might under these conditions be expected. For the gods who are invoked are nearly all personifications of the phenomena

cted in the productions of many poets extending over some centuries. Many display a high order of poetical excellence, while others consist of commonplace and mechanical verse. The degree of skill in composition is on the average remarkably high, especially when we consider that here we have by far the oldest poetry of the Aryan race. The art which these early seers feel is needed to produce a hymn acceptable to the gods is often alluded to, generally in the closing stanza. The poet usually compares his wo

ped together in each book. A similar effect would probably arise from reading in succession twenty or thirty lyrics on Spring, even in an anthology of the best modern poetry. W

He still looks out upon the workings of Nature with childlike astonishment. One poet asks why the sun does not fall from the sky; another wonders where the stars go by day; while a third marvels that the waters of all rivers constantly flowing into it never fill the ocean. The unvarying regularity of sun and moon, and the unfailing recurrence of the dawn, however, suggested to these ancient singers the idea of the unchanging order that prevails in Nature. The notion of this general law, recognised under the name ?ita (properly the "course" of things), we find in the Rigveda extended first to the fixed rules of the sacrifice (rite),

veneration of the cow, too, dates from that time. A religious hymn poetry must have existed even then, for stanzas of four eleven-syllable (the Vedic tri

that of heaven as a divine father (Dyau? pitā, Gr. Zeus patēr, Lat. Jūpiter). Probably from an even remoter antiq

phenomena are referred to heaven, while those of lightning, rain, and wind belong to the air. In the three worlds the various gods perform their actions, though they are supposed to dwell only in the third, the home of light. The air is often called a sea, as the abo

earing in the morning. Hence the character of each god is made up of only a few essential qualities combined with many others which are common to all the gods, such as brilliance, power, beneficence, and wisdom. These common attributes tend to obscure those which are distinctive, because in hymns of prayer and praise the former naturally assume special importance. Again, gods belonging to different departments of nature, but having striking features in common, are apt to grow more like each other. Assimilation of this kind is encouraged by a peculiar practice of the Vedic poets-the invocation of deities in pairs. Such combinations result in attributes peculiar t

nd of alluding to in riddles-would suggest the idea that various deities are but different forms of a single divine being. This idea is found in more than one passage of the later hymns of the Rigveda. Thus the composer of a recent hymn (164) of the first book says: "The one being priests speak of in many way

men, with all that has been and shall be born, with air, and heaven (i. 89); and in a cosmogonic hymn (x. 121) the Creator is not only described as the one god above all gods, but is said1 to

s alternately regarded as the highest," and for the moment treated the god addressed as if he were an absolutely independent and supreme deity, alone present to the mind. In reality, however, the practice of the poets of the Rigveda hardly amounts to more than the ex

ly referred to in several passages. Nor were the gods regarded as originally immortal; for immortality is said to have been bestowed upon them by individual deities, such as Agni and Savit?i, or to have been acquired by drinkin

e their activities. Thus the tongue and limbs of the fire-god are merely his flames; the arms of the sun-god are simply his rays, while his eye only represents the solar orb. Since the outward shape of the gods was thus vaguely conceived, while their connecti

ars, generally drawn by horses, but in some cases by kine, goats, or deer. In their cars the gods come to seat themselves at the sacrifice, which, however, is also conveyed to th

njurious features are at all prominent is Rudra. The lesser evils closely connected with human life, such as disease, proceed from minor demons, while the greater evils manifested in

ty only reflects the ethical standard of an early civilisation. Thus even the alliance of Varu?a, the most moral of the gods, with righteousness is not such as to prevent

give to me." The idea is also often expressed that the might and valour of the gods is produced by hymns, sacrifices, and especially offerings of soma. Here we find the germs of sacerdotal pretensions which gradually increased during the Vedic age. Thus the statement occurs in the White Yajurveda that the Brahman who possesses corr

ded as corresponding to one of the divisions of the threefold universe. This aggregate could not always have been deemed exhaustive, for some

e Parjanya, god of rain, and Yama, god of the dead, are invoked in only three each. The rest occupy various positions between these two extremes. It is somewhat remarkable that the two great deities of modern Hinduism, Vish?u and ?iva, who are equal in importance, shoul

iversal parents. In a few passages Dyaus is called a bull, ruddy and bellowing downwards, with reference to the fertilising power of rain no less than to the lightning and thundering heavens. He is also once compared with a black steed decked with pearls, in obvious allusion to the nocturnal star-spangled sky. One poet d

c gods by the side of Indra. While Indra is the great warrior, Varu?a is the great upholder of physical and moral order (?ita). The hymns addressed to him are more ethical and devout in tone than any others. They form the most exalted portion of the Veda, often resembling in character the Hebrew psalms. The peaceful sway of Varu?a is explained by his connection with the regularly recurring celestial phenomena, the course of the heavenly bodies seen in the sky; Indra's warlike and occasionally capricious nature is accounted for by the variable and uncertain strife of the elements in the thunderstorm. The character and power of Varu?a may be sketched as nearly as possible in the words of the Vedic poets themselves

r above any other deity. His wrath is roused by sin, which is the infringement of his ordinances, and which he severely punishes. The fetters with which he binds sinners are often mentioned. A dispeller, hater, and punisher of falsehood, he is gracious to the penitent. He releases men not only from the sins which they themselves commit

ereign god naturally faded away, and the dominion of waters, only a part of his original sphere, alone remained. This i

aru?a (vii. 89) will illustrate the sp

yet, Kin

to the hou

spare me,

come on thy

ing in the w

spare me,

atever the o

commit against

want of thought w

t, O God, for

nd," seems to have been conceived as the beneficent side of the sun's power. Going back to the Indo-Iranian period, he has in the Rigveda almost entirely lost his i

f Sūrya is often mentioned, and Dawn is said to bring the eye of the gods. All-seeing, he is the spy of the whole world, beholding all beings and the good or bad deeds of mortals. Aroused by Sūrya, men pu

d his coursers fr

r all spreads out her

awn. As a form of Agni, the gods placed him in heaven. He is often described as a bird or eagle traversing space. He measures the days and prolongs life. He drives

to the ends of the earth. He moves in his golden car, seeing all creatures, on a downward and an upward path. He shines after the path of the dawn. Beaming with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savit?i raises up his light continually from the east. He removes evil dreams and drives away demons and sorcerers. He bestows immortality on the gods as

oursers, he will

ariot he has st

ed of them that g

on by Savit?i

s her outstretc

own their work in

their nests, thei

lodging Savi

at the beginning of Vedic study, and which is still repeated by every orthodox Hindu in his morning prayers. From the name of

tain that

Savit?i

ulate our though

erpetual play on his name with forms of the ro

storal deity. His car is drawn by goats and he carries a goad. Knowing the ways of heaven, he conducts the dead on the far path to the fathers. He is also a guardian of roads, protecting cattle and

the solar deities. For he is one of the two great gods of modern Hinduism. The essential feature of his character is that he takes three strides, which doubtless represent the course of the su

that, his well

ted to the god

ghest step-he

e-there is a sp

ut as the personified swiftly moving luminary which with vast strides traverses the three

r the earth, now in the possession of demons, by taking his three strides. His character for benevolence was in post-Vedic myth

n is never absent from the poet's mind. The fondness with which the thoughts of these priestly singers turned to her alone among the goddesses, though she received no share in the offering of soma like the other gods, seems to show that the glories of the dawn, more splendid in Northern India than those we are wont to see, deeply imp

ay attire like a dancer, she displays her bosom. Clothed upon with light, the maiden appears in the east and unveils her charms. Rising resplendent as from a bath, she shows her form. Effulgent in peerless beauty, she withholds her light from neither small nor great. She opens wide the gates of heaven; she opens the doors of darkness, as the cows (issue from) their stall. Her radiant beams appear like herds of cattle. She removes the black robe of night, warding off evil spirits and the hated darkness. She awakens creatures that h

pensive thoughts about the fleeting nature of human life in contra

mortals who i

shing of the e

now look upo

shall in future se

strain anothe

n newly born t

uty with the se

stes away the

hed by the skilful

mns to Dawn (i. 113) furnish a more general pic

me, of all the li

ghtness has been

for god Savit

ielded up her p

athway is the

ods, alternatel

ifferent forms an

g clash not, nor

glad sounds, she

unclosed for

he world, she

ened every li

Daughter has ap

hing in her bri

ady of all ea

n, flush here

ework she has sho

cast off the r

he world with

yoked chariot

it many bounte

she spreads her

tless mornings t

morns to come

h, the life, aga

one away and l

athway for the

d where men pr

young and handsome. They ride on a car, on which they are accompanied by the sun-maiden Sūryā. This car is bright and sunlike, and all its parts are g

ke the lame to walk. One very curious myth is that of the maiden Vi?palā, who having had her leg cut off in some conflict, was at once furnished by the A?vins with an iron limb. They agree in many respects with the two famous horsemen of

oma, and generally escorted by the Maruts or Storm-gods, Indra enters upon the fray. The conflict is terrible. Heaven and earth tremble with fear when Indra smites V?itra like a tree with his bolt. He is described as constantly repeating the combat. This obviously corresponds to the perpetual renewal of the natural phenomena underlying the myth. The physical elements in the thunderstorm are seldom directly mentioned by the poets when describing the exploits of Indra. He is rarely said to shed rain, but constantly to release the pent-up waters or rivers. The lightning is regularly the "bolt," while thunder is the lowing of the cows or the roaring of the dragon. The clouds are designated by various names, such as cow, udder, spring, cask, or pail. They are also rocks (adri)

im the manly

performed, the l

gon, then discha

averns of the l

a bull, he ch

reefold vessels

grasped lightnin

ad that first-bor

hen availèd nau

lstorm which he

the dragon st

god gained vic

midst of never-

still but eve

ar off V?itra

oe sank down to

t when Indra had slain the dragon V?itra with his bolt, releasing the waters for man, he placed t

words of one poet, he protects the Aryan colour (var?a) and subjects the black skin; while another extols him for having dispersed 50,000 of the b

will serve as a specimen of the way in wh

spread earth when

rest the agit

ut air's inter

ky support: he

themselves bow

ht the very mo

ma-drinker, arme

the bolt: he,

hich he is described as drinking enormous quantities to stimulate him in the performance of his warlike exploits. One entire hymn (x. 119) consists of a monologue in which Indra, inebriated with soma, boasts of his greatness and power. Though of little poetic merit, this piece has a special intere

curs there in the form of verethraghna, as a designation of the god of victory. Hence there was probably

reater in the Indo-Iranian period, but became inferior to Indra in later Vedic times. Indra, on the other hand, became in the Brāhma?as and Epics t

sta. But he was gradually ousted by Indra as being originally almost identical in character with the latter. Another deity of rare occurrence in the Rigveda, and also dating from the Indo-Iranian period, is Apām? napāt, the "Son of Waters." He is described as clothed in lightning and shining without fuel in the waters. There can, therefore, be little doubt that he represents fire as produced from the rain-clouds in the form of

is described as fierce and destructive like a wild beast, and is called "the ruddy boar of heaven." The hymns addressed to him chiefly express fear of his terrible shafts and deprecation of his wrath. His malevolence is still more prominent in the later Vedic literature. The euphemistic epithet ?iva, "auspicious," already applied to him in the Rigveda, and more frequentl

led cloud-cow P?i?ni. At birth they are compared with fires, and are once addressed as "born from the laughter of lightning." They are a troop of youthful warr

ets as the heavens a

gs shine the torrents of

am with lightning, while they hold

smile upon the

sprinkle forth their

cribed as spotted, and they are once said to

ike lions or wild boars. With the fel

spread the

mountains r

ds they go their

the forest and like wild e

e ones, even wood

the very mountain t

the sun with showers. They bedew the earth with milk; they shed fatness (ghee); they milk the thu

ho to their c

forth the voice of ra

singers, and as such aid Indra in his fight with the demon. They a

rain-god, Parjanya. Vāyu is swift as thought and has roaring velocity. He has a shining car drawn by a team or a pair of ruddy steeds. On this car, which has a golden seat and touches the sky, Indra is his companion. Vāta, as also the ordinary designation of wind, is celebrated in

now will prais

eds along; its

, it goes on cau

ust of earth it

s pathways has

day he tarr

order-loving fr

he born? say, whe

, and of the wor

rding to his

rd, but ne'er is

us now with of

still means simply "rain-cloud." The personification is therefore always closely connected with the phenomenon of the rain-storm, in which the rain-cloud itself become

es to earth and sm

ears the wielder

himself flees fr

a thund'ring smit

r urging on his

nd forth the mes

the lion's roa

ya fills the atm

s, to earth the lig

the realm of light w

undance springs f

ya quickeneth th

oar: the vita

aring chariot

unloosed to ear

ke the heights a

mothers they produce Agni, whose lightning form is, as we have seen, called Apām? Napāt, "Son of Waters." The divine waters bear away defilement, and are even invoked to cleanse from moral guilt, the sins of violence,

streams; but the poets never lose sight of the connection of the goddess with the river. She is the best of mothers, of rivers, and of goddesses. Her unfailing breast yields riches of every kind, and she bestows wealth, plenty, nourishment, and offspring. One poet prays that he may not be removed from her to fields which are strange. She is invoked to descend from the sky, from the great mounta

lone in only one short hymn of three stanzas (v. 84). Even here the poet cannot ref

fixt, the

upportest in

e lightning

ods of the s

ry, the attributes of the goddess bei

is "butter-backed," "butter-faced," or "butter-haired." He is also "flame-haired," and has a tawny beard. He has sharp, shining, golden, or iron teeth and burning jaws. Mention is also often made of his tongue or tongues. He is frequently compared with or directly called a steed, being yoked to the pole of the rite in order to waft the sacrifice to the gods. He is also often likened to a bird, being winged and darting with rapid flight to the gods. He eats and chews the forest with sharp tooth. His lustre is like the rays of dawn or of the sun, and resembles the lightnings of the rain-cloud; but his track and his fellies are black, and his st

iving; the child as soon as born devours his parents. The ten maidens said to produce him are the ten fingers used in twirling the upright fire-drill. Agni is called "Son of strength" because of the powerful friction necessary in kindling a flame. As the fire is lit e

e from us (i.e. men), thirdly in the waters." This earliest Indian trinity is important as the basis of much of the mystical speculation of the Vedic age. It was probably the prototype not only of the later Rigvedic triad, Sun, Wind, Fire, spoken of as distributed in the three worlds, but also of the triad Sun, Indra, Fir

ny places, he is one and the same king. Other fires are attached to him as branches to a tree. He assumes various divine forms, and has many names; but in him are comprehended all the gods, w

onstantly called a "guest" in human dwellings; and is the only god to

"messenger" who moves between heaven and earth and a priest. H

he malevolent like a tree destroyed by lightning. All blessings issue from him as branches from a tree. All treasures are collected in him, and he opens the door of wealth. He gives rain from heaven and

es in the Rigveda from an earlier age, Agni being said to drive away the goblins with his light and receiving the epithet rakshohan, "goblin

r the soma while it is pressed by the stones and flows through the woollen strainer into the wooden vats, in which it is finally offered as a beverage to the gods on a litter of grass. The poets are chiefly concerned with these processes, overlaying them with chaotic imagery and mystical fancies of almost infinite variety. When Soma is described as being purified by the ten maidens who are sisters, or by the daughters of Vivasvat (the rising sun), the ten fingers are meant. The stones used in pounding the shoots on a skin "chew him on the hide of a cow." The flowing of the juice into jars or vats after passing through the

sweet drop flows over the filter like the din of combatants." This sound is constantly described as roaring, bellowing, or occasionally

Soma mainly dwelt upon by the poets is his brilliance. His rays a

ek ambrosia). Soma is the stimulant which conferred immortality upon the gods. Soma also places his worshipper in the imperishable world where there is eternal light and glory, making him immo

od exclaim, "We have drunk soma, we have become immortal, we have entered into light, we have known the gods." The intoxicating power of som

n of as lord of plants or their king, receiving

and abode is regarded as heaven, whence it has been brought down to earth. This belief is most frequently embodied in the myth of the soma-bringing

over, the statement occurs that the moon is King Soma, the food of the gods, and is drunk up by them. Finally, in post-Vedic literature Soma is a regular name of the moon, which is regarded as being consumed by the gods, and consequently waning till it is filled up again by the sun. This somewhat remarkable coalescence of Soma with the moon doubtless sprang from the hyperbolical terms in which the poets of the Rigveda dwell on Soma's cel

t by birds; in both it is king of plants; in both a medicine bestowing long life and removing death. In both the sap was pressed and mixed with milk; in both its mythical home is heaven, whence it comes down to earth; in bot

eda, where the arrows with which he pierces hearts are already referred to; he is the forerunner of the flower-arrowed god of love, familiar in classical literature. More numerous is the class of abstractions comprising deities whose names denote an agent, such as Dhāt?i, "Creator," or an attribute, such as Prajāpati, "Lord of Creatures." These do not appear to be direct abstractions, but seem to be derived from epithets designating a particular aspect of activity or character, which at first

stration of the curious way in which such abstractions

hty sky, the ea

heaven's vault, ha

the boundless s

d we with sacr

nknown, with the interrogative pronoun ka, "what?" This ka in the later Vedic literature came to be empl

ation of the sacrificial activity of Agni, a god with whom he has undoubtedly much in common. Thus the most prominent feature of his character is his priesthood. Like Agni, he has been drawn into and has obtained a firm footing in the Indra myth. Thus he is often described as driving out the cows after v

moral guilt. With the latter trait her name, which means "unbinding," "freedom," is clearly connected. The unpersonified sense seems to survive in a few passages of the Rigveda. Thus a poet prays for the "secure and unlimited gift of aditi." The origin of the abstraction is probably to be explained as follows. The expression "sons of Aditi," which is several times applied to the ādityas, when first used in all likelihood m

rominent of the male gods. One of the few, besides P?ithivī, to whom an entire hymn is addressed, is Rātrī, Night. Like her sister Dawn, with whom she is often coupled, she is addressed as a daughter of the sky. She is conceived

g on, the g

laces wit

she has dec

oddess, fa

e valleys an

th light sh

he goddes

away her

darkness h

ss, come to

roach we see

on the tree

ers have g

ith feet and b

hawk himsel

e she-wolf

e robber, g

safe acros

devoid of independent character. Indeed, hardly anything about them is mentioned but their n

as. By far the greatest number of such hymns is addressed to Mitra-Varu?a, but the names most often found combined in this way are those of Heaven and Earth (Dyāvāp?ithivī). There can be little doubt that the latter couple furnished the analogy fo

his warlike exploits. The same group, under the name of Rudras, is occasionally associated with their father Rudra. The smaller group of the ādityas is constantly mentioned in company with their mother Aditi, or their chief Varu?a. Their number in two passages of the Ri

nd their shel

r protecti

eers avoid

s always p

you, O go

t fight in c

on us, O

observing f

paths of pl

es to an

ndividual names nor any definite number. The Brāhma?as, however, mention eight of them. Finally, there are the Vi?vedevās or All-gods, to whom some sixty hymns are addressed. It is a factitious sacrificial group meant to embrace the

-consists in their having transformed his bowl, the drinking vessel of the gods, into four shining cups. This bowl perhaps represents the moon, the four cups being its phases. It has also been interpreted as the year with its division into seasons. The ?ibhus are further said to have renewed the youth of their parents, by whom Heaven and Earth seem to have been meant. With this miraculous deed another myth told about them appears to be specially connected. They rested for twelve days in the house of the sun, Agohya

are occasionally spoken of. Their abode is in the later Vedas extended to the earth, where they especially frequent trees, which resound with the music of their lutes and cymbals. The Brāhma?as describe them as distinguished by great beauty and devoted to dance, song, and play. In the post-Vedic period

in other for

ny nights throug

rmanence of which depends on a condition. When this is broken by a stratagem of the Gandharvas, the nymph immediately vanishes from the sight of her lover. Purūravas, distracted, roams in search of her, till at last he observes her swimming in a lotus lake w

er of the water-nymph, dwells in the fathomless spaces of air, and stands erect on the vault of heaven. He is also a guardian of the celestial soma, and is sometimes, as in the Avesta, connected with the waters. In the later Vedas the Gandharvas form a class, their association wi

r and the ancestor of the human race. The poets refer to him as "our father," and speak of sacrificers as "t

e cows. Another ancient race of mythical priests are the Bh?igus, to whom the Indian Prometheus, Mātari?van, brought

ven stars in the constellation of the Great Bear, and are said to have been bears in the beginning. This curious identification was doubtless brought about partly by

e gods, and in particular as representing the sun under various names. In the Vedic ritual the horse was regarded as symbolical of the sun and of fire. T

ow of Plenty" (Kāmaduh) so familiar to post-Vedic poetry. The earth itself is often spoken of by the poets of the Rigveda as a cow. That this animal already possessed a sacred character is shown by the fact that one Rishi addresses a cow as Aditi and a goddess, impressing upon his hearers that she should not be slain. Aghnyā ("not to be killed"), a frequent designation of the cow in the Rigveda, points in the same direction. Indeed the evidence of the Avesta proves that the sanctity of this animal goes back even to the Indo-Iranian period. In the Atharva-veda the worship of the cow is fully recognised, while the ?atapath

nd probably representing the beneficent side of the character of the serpent V?itra. In the later Vedas the serpents are mentioned as a class of semi-divine beings along with the Gandharvas and others; and in the Sūtras offerings to them are prescribed. In the latter works we meet for the first time with the Nāgas, in reality serpents, and hu

mainly with regard to their healing powers. Later Vedic texts mention offerings made to plants and the adoration paid to large trees passed in marriage processions. One hymn of the Rigveda (x. 146) celebrates t

grazing cow

house appea

ānī, Fore

e a cart a

ne calls hi

ere is fel

s in the f

imself, "I

es Ara?y

goes too

s eaten of

will she go

ted, redol

h food, yet

easts, the

magnified w

by plant, tree, and forest deities is a

fly sacrificial implements. Thus in one hymn (iii. 8) the sacrificial post (called "lord of the forest") is invoked, while three hymns of the tenth book celebrate the pressing stones used in pr

igveda, however, asura, when used by itself, also signifies "demon," and this is its only sense in the Atharva-veda. A somewhat unsuccessful attempt has been made to explain how a word signifying "god" came to mean "devil," as the result of national conflicts, the Asuras or gods of extra-Vedic tribes becoming demons to the Vedic Indian, just as the devas or gods of the Veda are demons in the Avesta. There is no traditional evidence in support of this view, and it is opposed by the fact that to the Rigvedic Indian asura not only in general meant a divine being, but was especially appropriate to Varu?a, the most exalted of the gods. The word must therefore have cha

his signification it developed the mythological sense of demons resembling those originally conceived as withholding the treasures of heaven. The term dāsa or d

thical cave in which the celestial cows are confined. In post-Vedic literature these two demons are frequently mentioned together and are regarded as brothers slain by Indra. The most often named among the remaining adversaries of Indra

various animals as well as of men. Their appearance is more fully described by the Atharvaveda, in which they are also spoken of as deformed or as being blue, yellow, or green in colour. According to the Rigveda they are fond of the flesh of men and horses, whom they attack by entering into them in order to satisfy their greed. They are supposed to prowl about at night and

nd in the funeral hymns of the last book. The belief here expressed is that fire or the grave destroys the body only, while the real personality of the deceased is imperishable. The soul is thought to be separable from the body, not only after death, but even during unconsciousness (x. 58). There is no indication

is a late addition;

with which Varu?a is th