Commercialized Prostitution in New York City

ement Davis, S

chaperone all visits to the girls while in the institution and from personal acquaintance extending in every case from three months to several years. The difficulties inherent in the compilation of such statistics are obvious. Certain data, such as birthplace, age, size of family, education, religion and previous occupation, are probably very nearly accurate. When we leave the domain of facts easily verifiable and come to the question of causes of prostitution, earnings of prostitution, reasons for coming to New York City, past institution records, conjugal condition, there is always

composition of a body of New York prostitutes? Does the native-born American who has enjoyed the economic and social advantages of this country contribute a greater or less percentage t

o this, the American-born contribute more and the foreign-born less than their proportion to the Bedford prostitutes. But 647 cases are a very small number on which to base any judgment. We have at hand, however, some other statistics. The histories of 610 prostitutes in other institutions have been analyzed.[305] Of these, 168 or 27.2 percent were white foreign-born and 68.5 percent were white American-born. In the study of 1,106 street cases, all white women, made in connection with this

e first five places on the list were identical. Canada comes sixth and France is relegated to eighth place. (Table, column III.) Examining the street cases in the same way, Russia comes first, Germany and Austria-Hungary exchange places as do Ireland and England-Scotland, France and Italy occupying sixth and seventh places. (Table, column IV.) Combining all reco

land-Scotland send us a very few more and France a good many more than their proper proportion. It is a well-known fact that Italy sends to the United States every year, many hundred unmarried men or men without their families. This probably accounts for the small proportion of Italy's contribution. It may be argued that this is not a fair rating as we have no complete census of New York prostitutes, but owing to the methods employed in securing our material both in and out of institut

. Table II shows the nationality of parents in detail with the greatest possible attainable accurac

rcent. The native-born of American parentage is 18.5 percent. Mi

tage in the population, is that of the native-born of foreign parents. This is not surprising when we remember that here we have a group in which the fathers and mothers belong to a civilization with speech, tradition and habits different from those of the country in which they are living. The children, native-born Americans with American companions and American schooling, adopt American ideals often not of the highest and are very apt, even when quite young, to feel that they know

worth or his good citizenship; but it enables us in a general way, to place him as to his position in society. By his earning capacity we can judge something of the kind of home he can make and the opportunities he can give his children. We have, accordingly, included in our Bedford study, the occupation of th

this is true. We have a young woman of German parentage, nineteen years of age, at Bedford at the present time, who was the eldest of ten children. She has never been to school a day in her life, nor to church or Sunday School. She is as much of a heathen as if she had been born in Central Africa. As a child, she had to stay at home to "mind the baby" and there was always one. As she grew older, she

ed from earning her own livelihood by her parents with the idea that her social position is thus bettered and she will be more likely to make a good marriage. One very marked case of this kind we have at this present moment at Bedford. The girl's father and mother are small sh

in the family, two and five brothers and sisters having the same number of representatives. The average number of children is 3.99, not greatly above the average number of children per family in the general co

group. It will be seen that the women who went out for day's work are much the largest group. They went out to wash, to clean, to scrub offices and for other unskilled labor. The laundresses were employed partly in steam laundries and partly in private families and came home at night. Of the 145 mothers who worked, there were 94 who were widows; one mother was divorced; the husband and father in one case was an inmate of a sanitarium for tuberculosis; in one case the father was in an insane asylum; in 8 cases the father had deserted his family; in 40 cases the husband and father was alive an

seven and eight respectively, while the greatest number in any one group was ten families with three children each. It may be that the father was inefficient or irregular in his occ

ver fourteen; 36 did not know the date of their fathers' death. Among these were some of the orphans and probably some girls who were not willing to tell all they knew. Of the 94 girls whose widowed mothers were employed, 61, or 64 percent lost their fathers before they had reached a working age. One hundred and two girls whose fathers were living had lost their mothers previous to their admission to Bedford. In 42 instances the father had remarried and in 20 inst

rst section. Accordingly, much that would have a bearing on the conditions which have made our girls what they are, is unknown to us. But we d

NOWN DEGENE

l Pe

olism in

nality i

epsy in

ded (very mar

ill health

nsan

s sex off

litic pa

cular 25

berculosis and alcoholism are likely to be much mo

me extent in affecting the lives of a group of girls of about the same age, education, industrial efficiency and social status who have not "gone wrong." Would there be as many orphans, as many motherless girls, as many or more wo

rite any language. Of these, 15 are American-born. Thirty-two can read and write a foreign language; 45.3 percent have never finished the primary grades, while an additional 39.72 percent never finished the grammar grades. Of the whole number, only 7.24 percent finished the grammar grades. Thirteen individuals had entered but not finished high school; only four individuals had graduated from high school; three had had one year at a normal school an

cation. Table X shows the occupation of these girls before entering a life of prostitution. It will be

ary in order to find work. Such services would not be desired by families where efficiency is demanded and paid for. A very large proportion of our girls were not competent workers but were girls employed in the lowest stratum of families that employ domestic help at all and where standards of service do not exist. This group includes almost all the colored girls and a considerable number of the foreign-born white girls. The factory operatives form the next largest group; clerks in department stores

which may or may not be due to the desire of the girls to put the best foot foremost in giving their histories to the investigator. Here the department store clerks form the largest group. Nearly half of the histories, however, say that the girls have never had any occupation previous to entering the life and in 101 cases, no statistics we

t large, the latest statistics available are those of the United States Census of 1900. This gives the

d waitresses 9

peratives 36

kers 34,30

omen 20,5

resses 15

esses 15,

which is a skilled trade, has very fe

of the girls' ability. The average minimum is $4 and the average maximum is $8. It will be noted that even the average maximum is below $9, an amount generally conceded to be the minimum on which a girl can live decently in New York City. See Table IX. By far, the largest number earned less than this, the average being pulled up by the few girls who were more competent. In this connection we made an inquiry of 194 young women who were at Bedford at the time the study was made, as to whether they were living at home and as to the disposition of their earnings at the time they entered prostitution as a business. Out of 194, one hundred and twen

nd $13, a much higher point than is reached by girls in the institutions. The total shows data for 238 girls who were domestic servants and 907 engaged in other occupations. In the cases of institution girls, the knowledge that the statement which they give can be checked up and verified by the institution officials, will, in most instan

ntered into with as little consideration as one would give to the purchase of a new hat, and a husband who has ceased to please is thrown aside as easily as an old garment. New connections are entered into with very little regard to the legal aspects of the case. Many a girl has said to me when arguing the matter of a new relationship and the lack of legal separation from the first, "But, Miss Davis, he did not deserve any consideration!" One girl who has committed bigamy by marrying the second man, gave as her excuse, which I think was perfectly genuine, that she wished to be respectable! In a large proportion of cases of girls sent here for prostitution, one or more men an

women who admitted having had children; 16 were pregnant at the time of entering the institution and 18 had previously been pregnant; 428 claim to have had no children. In this connection it may no

ious religious connection or preference. They are advised, if they have no definite religious preference, to attend the church to which their parents belonged. They are also told that they may not change aft

of the 7,408 women sentenced from Jefferson Market Day and Night Court in 1912, that there were

all offenses from all the courts of Manh

c 4,630

nts 3,67

1,880 "

l 10

from 1900 to 1910, the population of New York City in 1906 was about 4,235,010. On this basis, only 43.4 percent of the population have church connections. Only the heads of Jewish families are reported in this census. They are placed at 30,414. The World Almanac for 1913 is responsible for the statement quoted from "Christian Work and Evangelist" that there are 905,000 Jews in New York. This means racially as well as religiously Jewish. This would be about

of the private institutions to which delinquent women are committed. I should personally believe that if we had the necessary data we should find that, as in th

ering prostitution is also only known for the cases in the institution, as we did not attempt to secure this special data until the beginning of the present study. It will be noted that about 7 percent of the whole number committed their first offense before they were fourteen, and that

American-born were born in New York City. So far as this goes, it does not support the contention that the ranks of prostitution are recruited from country girls brought to the city for the purpose of immorality. We inquired of 139 girls in the institution at the time the study was made who were born outside of New York City but practised prostitution there, why they had come to New York. Seventy-eight of these claim to have come to the city with their fa

ut their wages or to get extra money. Thirty-two of the girls who were practising it at intervals and 43 who were practising it continuously, were engaged in trade. Of these, domestic servants were the largest single group, with factory operatives second. The girls who were working at trades excluding domestic service, were for the most part earning small wages; but the number of cases for which we have this data are few, too few on which to base any conclusions. The weekly earnings from prostitution as given by 1

g. One hundred and eight out of 279 claim that their first wrong-doing was because they yielded to a man whom they loved; 57 admit that it was for pay; 62 claim to have been forced into the first act; 23 yi

ons. We have grouped them as well as we can. The surprising thing is that very few directly economic reasons are given. It might be supposed that in friendly conversation, a girl would wish to make the greatest possible excuse for herself, and that the one most ready to hand would be the inability to earn a living. But in only 19 cases was this given as an excuse; and by referring to a similar table for street cases, it will be noticed that only 139 out of 1,106 gave a directly economic reason. It will be noted that only 7 out of 671 gave previou

LCOHOLIC DRINKS, D

oho

ug

rett

and ciga

l and

nd ciga

rugs and c

112

ntrance from effec

4

t from a physical examination. We cannot give figures as to the exact number

berculosis. No examination of the sputum was made except in cases of suspects.

mmissions in lunacy and have been transferred to asylums for the insane. Three others will probably have to be transferred; 107 were unhesitatingly pronounced distinctly feeble-minded. Not all of our 647 cas

TY BY B

lity of 5 yea

6

7

8

9 ""

10 "

11 "

12 "

1

ormatory institutions. It is safe to say that 90 percent of all disciplinary difficulties come from cases of this sort. They can be easily divided into at least two groups. Thus divided, 26 are girls who can be taught very little in school, whose general intelligence is low, but who may perhaps be able to learn a certain amount of manual labor; these cannot "stay good" any length of time. The other 26 are those who do well in s

8 percent, of the number studied are decidedly mentally

the Bureau of Social Hygiene, we expect to get much more definite results not only as to the mental

ow that 20.56 percent of the 647 inmates have clinical manifestations

ber of in

linical manifestat

inical manifestat

last

with sy

norrh

is and go

ease u

hanc

133 (2

rs at ice box temperature to fix complement, instead of the usual one hour at 37°C. in the incubator, 224, or 48 percent gave positive reactions, 212, or 45.4 percent gave negative reactions and 30, or 6.4 percent gave doubtful reactions, showing an increase of 10.3 percent of positive reactions for syphilis over the method of fixing complement at 37°C. The same sera were tested by the complement fixation test for gonorrheal infection with the result that 134 or 29

to demonstrate the presence of the gonococcus in but five of them, al

0.7 percent, are found to be free from venereal infection. Practically 90 percent showed infection; 170, or 36.4 percent gave positive reactions fo

felonies, while 450, or 69.55 percent were convicted of offenses directly connected with prostitution. The 25 cases committed as disorderly children were girls under eighteen years of age whose parents or relatives caused their arrest and brought them into court as the only means of taking them from the life. The 38 commitments for vagrancy we

he relation between prostitution and crime in the ca

y it. As is so often the case, she was very fond of the man and intensely jealous when another girl won him away. She bought a sharp knife and carried it fo

a trivial matter. She wished to go to one place and he to another. Neither would yield. He started across the street to go his own way. She drew a pistol and shot him dead. Asked

h. By him she had an illegitimate child. After the child was born he married her but they were not happy together. Another man coaxed her away from her husband. She claims he put her on the street, that she was violently

aims it was first prescribed by a physician during an illness. As the habit grew, she stole money from the till in her husband's shop to supply herself with the drug. The resulting friction betwee

s of a minor, had young girls with them whom th

t part girls who had engaged in fist

led since she was fourteen years old and saw no other way out of it. She

ng those who have served numberless previous sentences for minor offenses if in his judgment there is hope of reform in the particular case. Contrary to the impression of many people, i

evious institution experiences. In cases where these girls have been in more than one institution, this first portion of the table gives the institution in which she has spent the most time. Out of 647 cases, 255, or 39.4 percent only, are not known to have been at least p

warrant giving figures or percentages. For example, the relation of the women to the men whom they support is a matter where verifiable data are very hard to get. An increasingly large percentage of the wo

Now in many instances, even if their work is in these houses, they live outside and go to the houses only for business purposes. A case in point is that of a girl only sixteen years of age who worked in one of the houses conducted by the so-called "

igured in white slave cases. These commercialized phases

TICAL

YING CHA

is of cases from seven institutions in New York State and city other than Bedford; this material was gathered in different ways. In some institutions two trained investigators interrogated the girls, checking up their replies by the records of the institution wherever possible; in two insti

n the nature of things impossible, no responsibility for t

bl

ORD

-ANALYSIS

ive Born White N

York City 263 N

N. Y. State 39 Othe

lorado 1

onnecticut 5

of Columbia 1 Dist

Florida

Illinois

Iowa 2 K

Kansas 1

Maine 2

aryland 4 Ma

achusetts 16

w Jersey 23

higan 2 Nort

Minnesota 1

souri 1 Sout

rth Carolina

Ohio 4 V

Oregon 1

nnsylvania

land 2

1 Ve

gin

Virgi

now

Total 406 = 62.75

LUSTRATI

USTRATING

bl

ORD

Y OF PAREN

W

foreign, born in

a (18

emi

na

mar

lan

lan

an

y (11

lan

gar

di

lan

al

rw

Sco

la

ia (1

(57 J

tla

ed

zerl

es

foreign, born in

father Birth

lia En

ia Ge

a Eng

Spa

rk En

nd De

nd Ge

nd Ir

nd Wa

e Eng

e Ger

ce I

ny Bo

enm

ran

Hungar

uss

tzerl

ry Ge

nd En

otla

ale

Roum

y Ire

nia R

a Aus

nd Eng

rel

Port

exico 1

reign birth, moth

United

ada

and

and

any

and

and "

rn in U. S.,

States

Can

ngla

erma

rela

Ita

Nor

umani

oreign birth,

tri

man

lan

land

nown, mother o

lan

an

man

lan

th One Foreign

ents born in

n in the U. S.,

nown, mother b

parents

Whit

Col

rents of f

hplace Mother

ca Ja

a C

es South

rent of fo

United

Indie

States

rela

arents born

nown, mother b

s of both par

Colo

mber of

le

ORD

LITY OF

mm

par

n Born

White 290 2

ore

rn

countries

ore

pa

ther U. S.

ore

. White 28

ore

unknown

unknown

n the U. S. White 1

ed 68

pa

n i

S.,

Mother U. S. W

ore

U. S. W

unknown White

red

al

bl

TIVE POPULATION IN NEW YORK CITY

of New Yo

912

uals Pe

T

ord Cases

uals Pe

T

a

921,130 19.3% Native white of

0,374 38.2 Native white of known for

ified 91,702 1.92 Negr

bl

ORD

ONS OF T

fes

hit

engi

d prea

wy

ist

teac

ici

sic

vey

ed nu

nary s

ta

ir own

ew

ract

t de

e de

l ke

stable

dle

nkeep

keep

ta

ss Pos

ance

kma

state

esm

ta

nical

ksmi

klay

kmak

lde

et-ma

ente

age-m

op

tric

r (rail

(statio

fitt

zie

od pol

wor

hin

han

nte

ste

mbe

nte

e ro

e cu

e ma

cotta

smi

g dele

al

ing T

ma

k ma

ign

r on co

sse

lor

ta

r Tr

ke

rb

ten

et m

che

et l

r ma

ghts

ma

ogra

rattan

make

hmak

av

ta

al Pos

keep

of C

e off

ta

bo

ck ri

light t

ed on

d on ra

and farm

carr

ore

ne

ble

t swe

mst

chm

al

Factory

tor

l h

ta

ic Pos

chm

ok

ator

den

ito

rt

it

ta

ema

. Life Ins

duc

capt

ta

blic

ema

ouse k

car

ice

die

ta

ella

lec

ble

wich

aph op

specu

rtak

ta

work on

ble and fai

now

atist

al

Numb

bl

ORD

N THE FAMILIES FROM

Childre

0

1

2

3

now

mber of

ize of fa

TRATING ABO

le

ORD

TION O

res

vas

Hotel Li

6 colo

s wo

ral housework

smak

Operat

ekee

tres

dres

wif

lin

et W

rs

dle

Shopke

lor

al

mber of

f occupied m

le

ORD

CAT

e any language-15 A

reign language-5 read

ittle, no further

h primary gra

ot finish grammar

om grammar g

not finish high

rom high sc

n normal s

hs at coll

r of Cases

USTRATING

bl

ORD

rn

re entering

2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.

ge

ad

lud

me

ice

. . . . . 2 11 5

o

. . 3 3 13 9 24

.

ge

me

ice

. . . 4 4 5 5 1

o

1 1 6 8 13 9 10

ntering prostitu

15 18 20 22

e L

Avera

ge

ad

lud

me

ice

5 1 1 1 2 1 $30.00

o

. 3 . . . 1 . 25

ge

me

ice

. . . . . . 7.5

o

. . . . . . 5.0

LUSTRATIN

xcluding Domestic

er I

mestic Serv

bl

ORD

UPA

ring prosti

Perc

inding

small s

partment st

neral housew

d gir

perative

ress

employee

cure

nery

not stenograp

handwork

engrav

e operat

(chorus or vau

ot gradu

n restauran

rk 92

al

bl

ORD

RL BEFORE ENTER

vi

iving all t

ng p

y parents o

s as to mone

vi

ives { Giv

g par

00 3.00 4.00 5.00

ou

i

3 2 1

ving where t

al

le

ORD

L REL

ed 19

e 454

al

OMEN WITH REGARD T

rr

gnant on

evious to ente

iti

ren {

o

re

ht

ng

gnant on

evious to ente

giti

ren {

10

mber of

or no recor

al

le

ORD

LI

ic 266

h 123

tant 2

cord

mber of

USTRATING

le

ORD

G

II

e

Number

d Firs

Number

titu

.. 1 .33?

.. 1 .33?

... 1 .33

... 1 .33

.. 4 1.33?

... 12 4.

.. 29 9.66

% 43 14.33

% 61 20.33

% 40 13.33?

% 31 10.33

5% 28 9.33

% 19 6.33?

% 15 5.00

28% 3 1.

2% 6 2. %

19% 3 1.

% .. .....

% .. .....

9% 1 .33?

40% 1 .3

% .. .....

.. .......

.. .......

.. .......

o

o

9.98% 300 1

er

os. 17 yrs. 16 day

Highest 2

Lowest 7

9 Average 17

Mode 1

Mean 17.

No. of cases 30

USTRATING

Table of Pe

er I

bl

ORD

ION OF AM

2] { White 3

ore

n { White 6

ore

wn 2

al

USTRATING

le

ORD

NEW YORK, OF THOSE BOR

escape home

with f

work or ea

ice pros

New Y

lov

now

al

le

ORD

CTICED CONTINUOUS

ously 1

nuously {

with pa

ali

g 32 5

istics

of Cases Co

le

ORD

INED WITH P

of Cases

nstr

departmen

est

y oper

y empl

icu

ce w

wi

rical

tre

ali

money fro

ion only

al

le

ORD

INGS FROM P

pp

10 $12 $14 $15 $18 $19 $20

4 . 1 7 . 1 8

7 4 . 8 2 . 5

00 $110 $120 $125 $150 $200 $2

ca

. 15 1 1 2 5 7 1

1 6 . . 1 4 .

bl

ORD

SAME TIME WI

ek

es

0 $3.50 $3.75 $4.00 $4.50 $4.60 $

ge

upa

lud

me

ice

. . 1 1 . 2 .

o

3 . 5 2 . 6 2

me

ice

1 1 . 1 1 7 2

o

5 3 7 2 . 1 1

ek

0 $14.00 $15.00 $16.00 $17.00 $1

ge

upa

lud

me

ice

. . . . 2 $18.00

o

o

. . . . . . 12.

me

ice

. . 1 . . . 15.

o

. . . . . . 6

LUSTRATIN

xcluding Domestic

mestic Serv

le

ORD

FIRST SEX

108 3

{ Living wit

ted fr

Lover 17

yma

nger

{ Rela

ve

yma

r 25 62

ess 2

redisposit

wn 27

mber of

le

ORD

L CON

nsferred t

tende

ed (distinc

line-ne

d-"No mora

ts-run-a-way

le

ORD

SONS GIVEN

ection wit

ity of the

mpatibi

ect and

or father o

indulg

strict

over

ned ou

ction with

h of hu

tion by

ncludes cruelty

mpatibi

put girl on

sonal

d com

x instru

e or l

needed th

ned an

t girl on t

use of dri

ite s

d of dr

asy mo

Danc

y, hate

ge envi

e of th

rtion by

easure (theatre,

ire for

o home after fir

nomic

support

ort herself a

't find w

al

le

ORD

FE

Case

dem

t 3rd

ted su

g birth o

morals of

nt exp

disorder

place for sm

larc

y injurin

d indecent lang

92 or

lo

t 2nd

d grand

y 3rd d

y selling

ceny, 1st

ceny, 2nd

hter, 2n

g stolen

ber

105 o

r Of

persons and in danger of

prostit

erly c

rly con

g disorder

urse wi

ation or habit

ran

450 o

le

ORD

S, SO FAR AS CA

e Reformator

c Prote

ty j

Critten

Soci

od Shepherd

od Shepherd

Mercy,

uge, Randall

e Asy

en Asy

ate Industrial S

Juvenil

Industrial Scho

raining School f

n Asy

entia

urne P

on Squar

ly Ho

de Ho

hous

mes for Wayward

ution and never arr

ious arrests, but got

, and claim never to

g been on p

mber of

HE A

once fined, on

twice arrested and

n, three arrests

tion, several

workhouse eight time

institu

tions, several

e insti

utions, several

instit

ns, several times

ouse, four times ar

six times arre

ce, seven ti

khouse once, fined three

once; 10 days in workhouse; three

arrested six times

e twice; twice fined,

e, three

ms, six months each;

workhouse, three time

prison, 10 weeks; workhouse,

e Island; arreste

workhouse two terms an

e of Refuge, arrested five

rrests; workhouse, three mon

Asylum, one year; more than 40 times

USTRATING

le

ITUTIONS, OTH

THP

Born Fo

ty 210 Aust

f N. Y. State

England-

a 1 Fi

as 1 F

nia 6 G

o 1 Ger

icut 4

re 2 I

olumbia 3

da 3

a 3 Me

is 4 P

a 2 Ro

0 Rus

s 1 S

2 Switz

na 0 Ve

West I

al No. foreign

Total No. America

an 1 T

nes

issi

sou

ampsh

Jers

Caro

io

eg

ylvan

e Is

Caro

nes

xa

gin

mon

Virgi

con

now

al

le

ITUTIONS, OTH

AND COUNTRY OF 147 CASES

orn 85

born 6

al

ities of

ies of othe

ta

ntry, New Y

untry, oth

ta

4

e XX

ITUTIONS, OTH

K OF 400 CASES BORN OUTSIDE T

escape home

h family or

ork, or eas

ce prosti

New Y

lov

or not g

umber C

le

ITUTIONS, OTH

CAT

write in any la

es a foreign l

glish, no further e

fifth gra

ammar grade

ool or Business

wn 43

er of Case

le

ITUTIONS, OTH

UPA

tering pr

After enterin

case

ist

bindi

asse

ermai

small s

anio

t store 7

d gir

215 32

ervice 117

dry

aria

cure

age

iner

girl

e wor

ist

n Army w

ing

Engrav

graph

her

e operat

ical w

ress

orted by prosti

orted by husba

ali

now

al

le

ITUTIONS, OTH

g

e

Number

tutio

offense

g prost

. 1

. 1

. .

. 1

..

2

2

..

7 3

7 6

20

28

43

54

51

31

54

41

54

31

31

20

28

15

23

14

14

6 .

7 .

1 .

5

2 .

1 .

2 .

4

598

t Age

Age 1

.66 years

USTRATING

er I

le

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STRATING T

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ITUTIONS, OTH

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ITUTIONS, OTH

RL BEFORE ENTER

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ITUTIONS, OTH

FIRST SEX

231 3

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ITUTIONS, OTH

F EARNINGS FR

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ITUTIONS, OTH

CIDENTAL TO

ally De

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ITUTIONS, OTH

SONS GIVEN

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strict

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USTRATING

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ET C

THP

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n 20 Be

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in New York

te (country)

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1106 1

t Age

Age 1

yrs. 17.87+ y

24

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INGS FROM P

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FIRST SEXU

441 3

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116 269

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SONS GIVEN

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support h

herself and child

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UTING TO POPULATION OF NEW YORK CITY COMPARED W

III

ign

lati

Other Institutions Str

cases 1106 c

ign born 344 foreign

ssia Russia

ungary Austria-Hun

Germany Austria-Hun

Ireland Ireland Eng

land England-Scotland I

e Canada France-Canada (e

taly Italy

Fra

bl

YORK CITY AS TO BIRTHPLACE COMPARED

I I

lati

k City

883 Pe

ion Pro

3

Perc

sti

2,741,504 5

e 1,927,720

,702 1.9

5,957 .1

reign bor

ire

5,600 10.

0,400 7.

79,200 5.

ary 265,500

52,500 5.

land 104,100

8,200 .3

... ...

bl

ATIONS OF BEDFORD CASES WITH THOSE OF OT

er

tic service { H

d 52

3.00

ations { Hi

4.00

{ Domestic servic

rd

4.50

ations { Hi

5.00

omestic service

rd

4.29

tions { High

9.88

ases Co

ic ser

upations