The Science of Human Nature

Perceptions arise out of our sensory life. We see things when these things are before our eyes. We hear things when these things produce air vibrations which affect our ears. We

tually at the time affecting some one or more of our sense organs. A perception, then, results from the sti

of a robin. This morning the robin was present. Light reflected from it stimulated my eye. To-night, as I have an idea of the robin, it is not here; I only seem to see it. The scene which was

ne what life would be without it. If our life were only perceptual, if it were only the sights and sounds and smells and tastes of the passing moment, it would have little meaning, it would be bare and empty. But instead of our perceptions being our

y friend the day before. I think of what he said and of what he was doing, of what I said and of what I was doing. Perhaps for many minutes there come ideas

ink of the past, of my boyhood days and Sunday school, my early home and many scenes of my childhood. For several minutes I am so engrossed with the memory images that

ptions constitute the larger part of our mental life, but as we become older, larger and larger becomes the part played by our memory images or ideas. A child is not content to sit down and reflect, giving himself up to the flow of ideas that come up from his past experience, but a mature person can spend hours i

an, there is no sensation, no perception. Now, just as the basis of sensation and perception is brain activity, so it is also the basis of ideas. In sensation, the brain activity is set up from without. In memory, when we have idea

ng for many years to solve them. We shall now see what they hav

e shown that all aspects of memory improve with age. Some aspects of memory improve more than others, and they improve at different times and rate

re, and an adult still more. If we read a sentence to children of different ages, we find that the older children can reproduce a longer sentence. If we read a short story

sex graphs, pp

practically all th

oy of the same age in nearly every way. This is merely a fact of development. A girl develops faster than a boy, she reaches maturity more quickly, in mind as well as in body. Although a girl is lighter than a boy at birth, on the average she gains in weight faster and is heavier at twelve than a boy of the sa

xperiments conducted in the author's laboratory, it was found that a person who at first required an hour to memorize the ideas in a certain amount of material, could, after a few months' practice, memorize the same amount in fifteen minutes. And in the latter case the ideas would be better remembered than they were at the begi

nd intense the first experience, the more sure will be the later recall. So if we wish to remember an experience, we must experience it in the f

that the child sees the essential points, should be sure that the main principles enter his consciousness. We should find out by questioning whether he really does clearly understand

light, really be knowledge, at the outset. Few people ever really learn how to learn. They never see anything clearly, they never stick to a poin

tudying things. In geography, for example, we study about the earth, getting our information from a book. We read about land formations, river courses, erosion, etc., when

repeat the experience if we would retain it. It is a mistake to believe that if we have once understood a thing, we wil

ouses another. When we have one idea, what other idea will this arouse? It depends on what connections this idea has had in our

omes to mind, it brings along with it other ideas that have these helpful, practical relations. We must not, then, merely repeat our experien

nces abundant enough, but we differ in the way we work over and organize these experiences. Organization

the main facts; then go through it again, trying to see the relation of all the facts. Then try to see the facts in relation to your wider experience. If it is

efully plan the presentation of a new topic so as to insure a clear initial impression. A new topic should be presented orally b

recitation of the class, the first thing in order should be a discussion, on the part of the pupils. This will help

procedure in a recitation should depend upon the nature of the material and to some extent on the stage of advancement of the pupil; but in general such a procedure as that just outline

look for, and do not know how to find it after they know what they are looking for. They should be shown. Of course, some of them learn witho

memorize words that have meaning. This is a significant fact. It means that as material approaches nonsense, it is difficult to memorize. Therefore we should always try to grasp the mea

their attributes and relations, on the other. Again, we can base a classification on the type of ideation to which the material appeals, as auditory memory, visual memory, motor memory. We can also base a classification on the principle of meaning. This principle of classification would give us at least three classes: memory for ideas as expressed in sentences, logical memory; memory for series of mea

eas, of the book. One may be good at organizing meaningful material but poor at remembering mere words. On the other hand, these conditions may be reversed; one may remember the words but never get the meaning. It is of course possible that much of this difference is due to habit and experience, but some of the difference is beyond doubt due to original di

son can remember only two or three; but if a list of twenty words connected in a sentence were read to a person, in most cases, all of them would be reproduced. The reason is that the words in the latter cas

f them from one reading. If I say, "I have a little boy who loves his father and mother very much, and this boy wishes to go to the river to catch some fish," one can easily remember all these words after one reading. But if I say, "The stomach i

n memory, but wishes them to reason things out. Such a statement shows a misunderstanding of the facts; for reasoning itself is only the recall of ideas in accordance with

me to one in memory to be available for thought. If one wishes to become a great thinker in a certain field, he must gain

ss. One should remember the meaning of the demonstration. If one has memorized the words only, he cannot solve an original problem in geometry. But if he has understood the meaning of the demonstration, then he recalls it, and is enabled to solve the probl

an important factor in all school work. It matters not what we learn, if we do not remember it. The autho

eir standing in their studies. A very high correlation was found. On the whole, the pupils standing highest in the memory tests were found to stand highest in their studies. It is true, of course, that they did not stand

a way as to remember them involves nearly all the mental functions. The one who remembers well ideas logically related, is the one who pays the closest attention, the one who sees the significance, the one who organizes, the o

ember it has an advantage over the person who has to look up the meaning of the word several times before it is retained. So in any branch of study, the person who can acquire the facts in less time than another person, has the extra time for learning s

ner is in danger of forming slovenly habits. A person who learns quickly is likely to form the habit of waiting till the last minu

not be satisfied with one attack on his lesson, but should study the lesson more than once, for even the brilliant learner cannot afford to neglect the advantages that come from repetition. A person with poor memory and only mediocre ability gen

lity generally, and is also a hard worker. Such a person always does the best work in the class. A person with poor memory and poor menta

y: A logical memory test was given to all the children in a city school system. A story was read to the pupils and then reproduced by them in writing. The papers were corrected and graded and nothing more was said about the test for one month. Then at the same time

e the most after the lapse of a month, and the poorest ones at first are the poorest ones at the end of t

urse, only if other things are equal. If one pupil studies about the matter more, reflects upon it, repeats it in his mind, of course this person will remember more, other thin

length, repeating the reading till the subject could reproduce all the facts. It was found that the person who acquired all the facts from t

heir retention of the words learned. It was found that those who learned the most words in a given time, also retained the largest percentage of what had been learned. It should not be surprising that

they were then required to say them over again till they could just repeat them from memory. The number of repetitions was noted. The number of repetitions was much less than on the first day. On the third day, the process was repeated. The number of repetitions was fewer still. This relearning was kept up each day till each person could repeat the syllables from memory with

d that we can improve memory by practice. Now, the question arises, if we improve one aspect of memory, does this im

ained one aspect of their memory until there was considerable improvement. The other section had no memory training meanwhile. After the training, both groups again had all aspects of their memory tested. Both groups showed improvement in all aspects because the first

trained, and related memories. This is in harmony with what we learned about habit. When w

now the most economical way. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that the most economical way is to read the entire s

le line, while if he had concentrated on one line, he could have repeated at least that much. This is true; but although he cannot repeat a single line by the whole procedure, he has learned neverth

The best procedure for learning the facts so that one can give t

short time, as students often do before examinations. From all that has been said above, one could infer the

learn. This will make for permanent retention. Of course, if we wish to get together a great mass of facts for a temporary purpose and do not care to retain them permanently, cramming is the proper method. If we are required to pass an examination in whi

ionally review. At the end of the term, a rapid review of the whole term's work is valuable. After one has studied over matter and once carefully worked it out, a quick view again of the whole subject is most valuable, an

d in experiments in logical memory that when a story is read to a subject and the subject attempts to reproduce it, certain mistakes are made. When the story is read again, it is common for the same mistakes to be made in the recall. Certain ideas were apprehended in a certai

This function is to correct mistakes in the early stages of learning. A teacher should always be on

o test the memory capacities of the pupils and

ny things have been taught to children on the assumption that they could learn them better in childhood than later, because it was thought that memory and the learning

not learned in childhood in speaking the mother tongue are usually difficult for us to make. The organs of speech become set in the way of their early exercise. In reading the foreign language, correct pronunciation is not important. We are concerned with getting the thought, and this is possible without pronouncing at all. Reference to graphs on pages 190 a

dy out over the high school period. But what is gained does not offset the tremendous loss that follows from requiring all high school students to study a foreign language merely to give an opportunity for early study to those who are to go on in the university with language courses. A mature university student that has a real interest in language and literature can begin his language stud

ironment. Children must first learn the world-the woods and streams and birds and flowers and plants and animals, the earth, its rocks and soils and the wonderful forces at work in it. They must learn man,-what he is and what he does

onal preparation. The child's memory for abstract conceptions is particularly weak in early years; hence studies should be so arranged as to acquaint the child with the concrete aspects of the world first, and later to acquaint him with the abstract relations of things. Mathe

onsidered as retention depends upon the permanence of the impression on the brain; but in its associative aspects depends on connections betwee

ections. There is nothing in any idea that connects it with another idea. Ideas become connected because of the way in which we experience them, and the reason one idea calls up another idea is because the brain process that is the cause of one idea brings about another brain proce

is to be found in the nervous system. When one tries to recall the name and it will not come to mind, there is some temporary block or hindrance in the nerve-path that leads from one center to the other and one cannot think of the name till the

ssociative

matically the neural basis

ot well established. We must think together the things we wish to have associated. Repetition is the key to the situation, repetition which i

ther in the firmest way that have been experienced together most often in a state of attention. The diagram on page 147 illustrates schematically the neural connections and cross-connections which are the bases

ory is in the brain and nervous system. Memory improves with practice and up to a certain point with the age of the person. It is better in girls than in boys. Good memory depends on vivid experience in the first place and on organization an

EXER

f letters with eight letters in a group. Read each group of letters to the class, slowly and distinctly. After reading a group, allow time for the students to write down what they recall

Write the letters plainly on five large squares of cardboard. Hold each list be

Use simple words of one syllable, maki

holding the card before the class. Put eight objects on each card and prepa

five lists of names, eight names in a list,

in all the above experiments. Do the members of the class hold the same rank in all the tests? How do the boys compare with the girls? How does memory

parate tests, using stories that are well within the comprehension of the class and that will arouse their interest. Sufficient materia

students for their combined standing in all the first five tests. Rank them for their combined

his book. Allow just time enough for the selection to be read once slowly by the students, then have it reproduced as in the other logical memory experiment. Give several tests, if there is sufficient time. Find the average grade of each student, and compare the results with those obtained in No. 7. Th

y for a week or two, as time permits, using material that can be easily prepared, such as

e also the rote memory tests described on page 189. Get the class standing of the pupils from the teacher. Make the comparison as suggested in Chapter I, page 15.

tudied in school. Plan devices for learning the material better and for fixing it in memory. At

those of that experiment. What do the results indicate as to the value to memory of meaningful material? What educational inf

paragraphs in later chapters of this book, of equal length and difficulty. Let the students read one under quiet

the memory tests, let the students enumerate

te outline of

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ey: Human Behav

logy, General and A

ls of Psychology, C

of Educational Psyc

inner's Psycholo